New South Wales v Fahy
[2007] HCA 20236 ALR 406
High Court of Australia
Judges:
Gleeson CJ
Gummow J
Kirby J
Hayne J
Callinan J
Heydon
Crennan J
Subject References:
Negligence
Duty of care
Duty of care owed to police officer by Crown or Commissioner of Police
Safe system of work
(NSW) Police Service Act 1990 s 201.
Foreseeability
Whether Wyong Shire Council v Shirt should be overruled.
Judgment date: 22 May 2007
Canberra
Orders
- (1)
- Appeal allowed.
- (2)
- Set aside Orders 2 and 3 of the Court of Appeal of the Supreme Court of New South Wales made on 4 April 2006 and in their place order that the order of the District Court of New South Wales made on 28 February 2005 that there be a verdict for the plaintiff be set aside, and in its place order that there be judgment for the defendant.
- (3)
- The appellant pay the costs of the respondent of the appeal in this court.
1 New South Wales v Fahy (2006) 155 IR 54 ; [2006] NSWCA 64 .
2 [2004] 1 WLR 1089 ; [2004] 2 All ER 385 ( Barber ).
3 Barberat WLR 1110 [65]; ALL ER 406, applying Stokes v Guest, Keen & Nettlefold (Bolts & Nuts) Ltd [1968] 1 WLR 1776 at 1783
4 Barberat WLR 1092-3 [7], [10], 1109 [63]; All ER 389-90, 405.
5 Barberat WLR 1092 [7]; All ER 389.
6 (1980) 146 CLR 40 at 46-8 ; 29 ALR 217 at 219-20 ( Shirt ).
7 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 220-1.
8 [1967] 1 AC 617 ; [1967] ALR 97 ; [1966] 2 All ER 709.
9 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 220-2.
10 See Ridge v Baldwin [1964] AC 40 at 65 ; [1963] 2 All ER 66 at 71.
11 (2005) 223 CLR 486 at 490 [2] ; 221 ALR 764 at 766 ; [2005] HCA 63 .
12 Blyth v Birmingham Waterworks Co (1856) 11 Ex 781 at 784 ; 156 ER 1047 at 1049.
13 Shirtat CLR 53; ALR 225-6.
14 Cf Woods v Multi-Sport Holdings Pty Ltd (2002) 208 CLR 460 ; 186 ALR 145 ; [2002] HCA 9 ; Neindorf v Junkovic (2005) 222 ALR 631 ; 80 ALJR 341 ; [2005] HCA 75 ; Vairy v Wyong Shire Council (2005) 223 CLR 422 at 425-7 [2]-[8] ; 221 ALR 711 at 712-14 ; [2005] HCA 62 .
15 (2002) 211 CLR 540 at 567-9 [48]-[54] ; 194 ALR 337 at 351-3 ; [2002] HCA 54 .
16 Section 73 of the Police Service Act 1990 (NSW).
17 Section 4 of the Police Service Act. The Police Service Amendment (NSW Police) Act 2002 (NSW) amended the short title of the Police Service Act to the "Police Act 1990" and deleted references to the Police Service of New South Wales, instead referring to "NSW Police". It will be necessary in these reasons to refer to the provisions of the Police Service Act as they stood at the time of the events giving rise to this matter, and convenient to refer to the "Police Service" rather than to "NSW Police".
18 New South Wales v Fahy (2006) 155 IR 54 ; [2006] NSWCA 64 ( Fahy ).
19 (1980) 146 CLR 40 ; 29 ALR 217 ( Shirt ).
20 Section 6(2)(a).
21 Section 6(3)(b).
22 Section 8(1).
23 Section 12.
24 Fahyat 60 [30].
25 (2006) 231 ALR 485 at 487-8 [4]-[6] ; 81 ALJR 427 at 430 ; [2006] HCA 57 ( Ibbett ).
26 Cf Kondis v State Transport Authority (1984) 154 CLR 672 ; 55 ALR 225 .
27 Sections 6(2)(a) and (3)(b).
28 Section 151U of the Workers Compensation Act.
29 Fahyat 58 [17].
30 Fahyat 56 [3].
31 Fahyat 56 [2].
32 Fahyat 56 [4].
33 Fahyat 56 [5].
34 Fahyat 57 [10].
35 Fahyat 58 [18].
36 Fahyat 60-1 [30]-[33].
37 Fahyat 61 [33].
38 Fahyat 61 [34].
39 Fahyat 71-4 [81]-[90]
40 Fahyat 73-4 [90], citing Koehler v Cerebos (Aust) Ltd (2005) 222 CLR 44 ; 214 ALR 355 ; [2005] HCA 15 ( Koehler ).
41 Fahyat 73-4 [90].
42 Fahyat 74 [93].
43 Fahyat 75 [98].
44 Fahyat 73-4 [90].
45 Fahyat 73 [90].
46 Fahyat 73-4 [90].
47 Shirtat CLR 48; ALR 221.
48 (2005) 222 CLR 44 ; 214 ALR 355 ; [2005] HCA 15 .
49 Koehlerat CLR 53 [21]; ALR 359.
50 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 221.
51 J A Simpson and E S C Weiner (eds), The Oxford English Dictionary , 2nd ed, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989, Vol 2, p 778, citing C Hutton, A Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary , London, 1796, Vol 1, p 234.
52 (2005) 223 CLR 422 ; 221 ALR 711 ; [2005] HCA 62 ( Vairy ).
53 Vairyat CLR 461 [124]; ALR 743 per Hayne J; see also at CLR 443 [60]-[61]; ALR 727 per Gummow J.
54 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 221.
55 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 221.
56 Section 201.
57 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 221.
58 Fahyat 59 [20].
59 Section 6(3)(b).
60 John v FCT (1989) 166 CLR 417 ; 83 ALR 606 ; Esso Australia Resources Ltd v FCT (1999) 201 CLR 49 at 71 [55], 101-6 [152]-[167] ; 168 ALR 123 at 137-8, 162-6 ; [1999] HCA 67 ; Shaw v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (2003) 218 CLR 28 at 45 [38] ; 203 ALR 143 at 152 ; 77 ALD 251 at 257 ; [2003] HCA 72 .
61 (2005) 223 CLR 486 ; 221 ALR 764 ; [2005] HCA 63 .
62 Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW); Wrongs Act 1958 (Vic); Civil Liability Act 1936 (SA); Civil Liability Act 2003 (Qld); Civil Liability Act 2002 (WA); Civil Liability Act 2002 (Tas).
63 New South Wales v Fahy (2006) 155 IR 54 ; [2006] NSWCA 64 ( Fahy ).
64 Section 73 of the Police Service Act 1990 (NSW).
65 Fahy v New South Wales , 28 February 2005, unreported (reasons of the primary judge).
66 Fahyat 59 [27], 87 [154], but see at 87 [158].
67 Fahyat 59 [23], 84 [142], 87 [154].
68 Under s 151L(3) of the Workers Compensation Act 1987 (NSW).
69 Fahyat 81-2 [129], 83-4 [137].
70 As Spigelman CJ urged them to do: Fahyat 59 [23].
71 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [14]-[16], [29]-[44].
72 Thus the expert report of Mr Terrence O'Connell referred to s 15(1) of the Act and to the New South Wales Police Service Occupational Rehabilitation Policy published in June 1996.
73 For example, TNT Australia Pty Ltd v Christie (2003) 65 NSWLR 1 at 15-16 [68]-[70] ; [2003] NSWCA 47 .
74 New South Wales v Williamson [2005] NSWCA 352 .
75 (1980) 146 CLR 40 at 47-8 ; 29 ALR 217 at 220-2 ( Shirt ).
76 Cf reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [71]; Koehler v Cerebos (Aust) Ltd (2005) 222 CLR 44 at 58-9 [40], 65 [57] ; 214 ALR 355 at 363, 368-9 ; [2005] HCA 15 ( Koehler ).
77 See, for example, Bowater v Rowley Regis Corp [1944] KB 476 at 481 ; [1944] 1 All ER 465 at 467; Burnett v British Waterways Board [1972] 1 WLR 1329 ; [1972] 2 All ER 1353; R A Blackburn, "'Volenti Non Fit Injuria' and the Duty of Care", (1951) 24 ALJR 351.
78 Attorney-General for Ontario v Keller (1978) 86 DLR (3d) 426.
79 Ogwo v Taylor [1988] AC 431 ; [1987] 3 All ER 961 (fire service).
80 Fahyat 80 [119], 81 [128].
81 Reasons of the primary judge at 63, 66.
82 Reasons of the primary judge at 73-4.
83 Ordinary statement of claim, para 5.
84 Ordinary statement of claim, para 6(d).
85 Sections 6, 8.
86 Fahyat 56 [2] per Spigelman CJ (with whom M W Campbell AJA agreed at 87 [154]).
87 Mount Isa Mines Ltd v Pusey (1970) 125 CLR 383 at 394 and 407 ; [1971] ALR 253 at 258-9 and 267; Tame v New South Wales (2002) 211 CLR 317 at 390 [213] ; 191 ALR 449 at 502 ; 36 MVR 1 at 53 ; [2002] HCA 35 ( Tame ); cf Campbelltown City Council v Mackay (1989) 15 NSWLR 501 at 503-4; C Tennant, "Liability for Psychiatric Injury: an Evidence-based Appraisal", (2002) 76 ALJR 73, pp 75, 79.
88 Reasons of the primary judge at 75.
89 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [18].
90 Cf Crimmins v Stevedoring Industry Finance Committee (1999) 200 CLR 1 at 13 [3], 19 [27], 32 [71], 76-7 [214], 113 [343] ; 167 ALR 1 at 3, 8, 19, 54-5, 84-5 ; [1999] HCA 59 ( Crimmins ).
91 (1906) 3 CLR 969 ; 12 ALR 592 ; [1906] HCA 3 ( Enever ). Enever was approved by the Privy Council in Attorney-General for New South Wales v Perpetual Trustee Co Ltd (1955) 92 CLR 113 at 120 ; [1955] AC 457 at 479-80 ; [1955] ALR 469 at 472-3 ; [1955] 1 All ER 846 at 851-2.
92 Eneverat CLR 975; ALR 594.
93 See Australian Law Reform Commission, "Complaints Against Police", Report No 1, (1975), pp 58-63 [213]-[229].
94 The Police Service Act is now known as the Police Act 1990 (NSW).
95 Fahyat 60-1 [30]-[33] noting s 9B(2) of the Law Reform (Vicarious Liability) Act and the Crown Proceedings Act 1988 (NSW). See also New South Wales v Ibbett (2006) 231 ALR 485 ; 81 ALJR 427 ; [2006] HCA 57 .
96 Fahyat 60-1 [32].
97 See, for example, s 4B of the Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW); Commissioner of Police v Estate of Russell (2002) 55 NSWLR 232 at 250 [90]-[94] ; 194 ALR 319 at 335 ; [2002] NSWCA 272 .
98 Fahyat 61 [33] where Basten JA called attention to s 41 of that Act.
99 Section 3 of the Crown Proceedings Act.
100 Cf British American Tobacco Australia Ltd v Western Australia (2003) 217 CLR 30 at 84-6 [145]-[153] ; 200 ALR 403 at 440-2 ; [2003] HCA 47 referring to Byrne v Ireland [1972] IR 241 at 272 per Walsh J.
101 Roberts v Bass (2002) 212 CLR 1 at 54 [143] ; 194 ALR 161 at 199 ; [2002] HCA 57 .
102 Cf Klein v Minister for Education (2007) 232 ALR 306 at 315 [38], 319-20 [57] ; 81 ALJR 582 at 590, 593-4 ; [2007] HCA 2 ( Klein ).
103 Konrad v Victoria (1999) 91 FCR 95 ; 165 ALR 23 ; [1999] FCA 988 ; but cf Griffiths v Haines [1984] 3 NSWLR 653 .
104 Cf Kleinat ALR 315 [38], 319-20 [57]; ALJR 590, 593-4.
105 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 220-2.
106 Garcia v National Australia Bank Ltd (1998) 194 CLR 395 at 403 [17] ; 155 ALR 614 at 619 ; 23 Fam LR 575 at 580 ; [1998] HCA 48 .
107 New South Wales v Fahy [2006] HCATrans 472 at 140.
108 Caterson v Cmr of Railways (1973) 128 CLR 99 at 101-2 ; [1972-3] ALR 1393 at 1394-5 ( Caterson ) per Barwick CJ.
109 Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 at 580 ( Donoghue ).
110 Cf Crimminsat CLR 98 [276]; ALR 72 per Hayne J (diss).
111 H T Terry, "Negligence", (1915) 29 Harvard L Rev 40, p 52.
112 See, for example, Katsilis v Broken Hill Pty Co Ltd (1977) 18 ALR 181 ; 52 ALJR 189.
113 Stokes v Guest, Keen and Nettlefold (Bolts and Nuts) Ltd [1968] 1 WLR 1776 at 1783.
114 Bankstown Foundry Pty Ltd v Braistina (1986) 160 CLR 301 at 309 ; 65 ALR 1 at 6-7 ( Braistina ).
115 See, for example, Mihaljevic v Longyear (Aust) Pty Ltd (1985) 3 NSWLR 1 at 9 and 18; Bankstown Foundry Pty Ltd v Braistina (1985) Aust Torts Reps ¶80-713 at 69,127, see also at 69,125-6 per Priestley JA.
116 McLean v Tedman (1984) 155 CLR 306 at 313 ; 56 ALR 359 at 363-4 ; 1 MVR 483 (CN).
117 Blackman v Commonwealth (1978) 20 ACTR 33 at 43.
118 Cf Paris v Stepney Borough Council [1951] AC 367 ; [1951] 1 All ER 42; Qualcast (Wolverhampton) Ltd v Haynes [1959] AC 743 at 753 ; [1959] 2 All ER 38 at 39; Silvestro v Verbon Pty Ltd [1973] 2 NSWLR 513 .
119 Fahyat 56 [2].
120 Fahyat 56 [5] (M W Campbell AJA agreeing at 87 [154]).
121 Fahyat 74 [92]-[94].
122 (2005) 222 CLR 44 ; 214 ALR 355 ; [2005] HCA 15 .
123 Koehlerat CLR 53 [19]; ALR 358-9.
124 Koehlerat CLR 64 [54]; ALR 367-8.
125 Koehlerat CLR 64 [54]; ALR 368.
126 Cited in full in the reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [56].
127 Tameat CLR 353 [99]; ALR 472; MVR 23.
128 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 221. In his reasons in Tame , McHugh J added emphasis to the words in the last sentence.
129 Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd v Miller Steamship Co Pty Ltd [1967] 1 AC 617 ; [1967] ALR 97 ; [1966] 2 All ER 709 ( The Wagon Mound (No 2 )).
130 Miller Steamship Co Pty Ltd v Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd [1963] SR (NSW) 948.
131 The Wagon Mound (No 2 )at AC 643-4; ALR 105; All ER 719. See also Koufos v C Czarnikow Ltd [1969] 1 AC 350 ; [1967] 3 All ER 686.
132 Shirt v Wyong Shire Council [1978] 1 NSWLR 631 ( Wyong Shire Council ).
133 Wyong Shire Councilat 641. The adjective was noted by Mason J in Shirtat CLR 44; ALR 218.
134 Shirtat CLR 48; ALR 221.
135 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 221.
136 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 220-1.
137 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 220.
138 Shirtat CLR 44, 49 and 50; ALR 218-19, 222-3, 223 (Wilson J dissented at CLR 50ff; ALR 223ff, see esp at CLR 53; ALR 225).
139 See Tameat CLR 352-4 [98]-[101]; ALR 472-3; MVR 22-4.
140 Shirtat CLR 48; ALR 221-2.
141 Tameat CLR 352 [98], 353 [100]; ALR 472 and 473; MVR 22-3 and 23. See also Swain v Waverley Municipal Council (2005) 220 CLR 517 at 548-9 [79]-[81] ; 213 ALR 249 at 272-3 ; [2005] HCA 4 ( Swain ).
142 See below these reasons at [132].
143 Catersonat CLR 101-2; ALR 1394-5.
144 Tameat CLR 429 [331]; ALR 533-4; MVR 84-5.
145 Koehlerat CLR 64 [54]; ALR 367-8.
146 (2005) 223 CLR 422 at 480-1 [213] ; 221 ALR 711 at 759 ; [2005] HCA 62 ( Vairy ).
147 Reasons of Callinan and Heydon JJ at [213].
148 Shirtat CLR 53; ALR 225.
149 Shirtat CLR 53; ALR 225.
150 Shirtat CLR 46; ALR 219-20.
151 Donoghueat 580.
152 Tameat CLR 353 [99]; ALR 472; MVR 23.
153 Swainat CLR 577 [191]; ALR 296-7.
154 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [58]. See also Romeo v Conservation Commission (NT ) (1998) 192 CLR 431 at 480 [128] ; 151 ALR 263 at 300-1 ; [1998] HCA 5 ; Vairyat CLR 461 [124]; ALR 743.
155 (2005) 220 CLR 517 ; 213 ALR 249 ; [2005] HCA 4 .
156 Cf reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [57].
157 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 220-1 [emphasis added].
158 (1978) 18 ALR 147 ; 52 ALJR 292 ( Maloney ).
159 Shirtat CLR 55; ALR 227.
160 Maloneyat ALR 148; ALJR 292-3.
161 See, for example, Ardern v Ritchies Stores Pty Ltd [2001] VSCA 5 ; Campbelltown City Council v Frew [2003] NSWCA 154 ; O'Leary v Oolong Aboriginal Corp Inc (2004) Aust Torts Reports 81-747 ; [2004] NSWCA 7 ; Tomisevic v Menzies Wagga Southern Pty Ltd [2005] NSWCA 178 .
162 Central Bayside General Practice Assn Ltd v Cmr of State Revenue (2006) 229 ALR 1 at 22-3 [84] ; 80 ALJR 1509 at 1528 ; [2006] HCA 43 and cases there cited.
163 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [79] by reference to the legislation noted in fn 62.
164 Brodie v Singleton Shire Council (2001) 206 CLR 512 at 601-2 [229]-[233] ; 180 ALR 145 at 209-10 ; 33 MVR 289 at 352-4 ; [2001] HCA 29 .
165 Cf Clayton v R (2006) 231 ALR 500 at 530-1 [119] ; 81 ALJR 439 at 462-3 ; [2006] HCA 58 .
166 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 220.
167 [1932] AC 562 .
168 (1972) 1 JLS 29.
169 Posner, 1972, p 42.
170 Posner, 1972, p 42.
171 Woods v Multi-Sport Holdings Pty Ltd (2002) 208 CLR 460 at 477-8 [62]-[63] ; 186 ALR 145 at 156-7 ; [2002] HCA 9 per McHugh J (diss), CLR 492-3 [107]; ALR 169 of my own reasons ( Woods ); Cole v South Tweed Heads Rugby League Football Club Ltd (2004) 217 CLR 469 at 483-4 [38]-[41] ; 207 ALR 52 at 62-3 ; 40 MVR 1 at 11-12 ; [2004] HCA 29 per McHugh J (diss).
172 Neindorf v Junkovic (2005) 222 ALR 631 at 653 [85] ; 80 ALJR 341 at 359-60 ; [2005] HCA 75 ( Neindorf ) referring to Lord Atkin's speech in Donoghueat 580 citing, in turn, St Matthew's Gospel.
173 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [60]-[61].
174 Tabled June 1999 pursuant to s 31 of the Ombudsman Act 1974 (NSW).
175 New South Wales Police Service, Occupational Rehabilitation Policy, (June 1996).
176 Mitchell, Boyle and Smith, "The Nature of Traumatic Incidents: New Data from Scotland and Northern Ireland", paper delivered at the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies Conference, Melbourne, 2000.
177 There has been a similar cultural resistance to acknowledging stress in the legal profession and judiciary: see J V Thomas, "Get Up Off the Ground", (1997) 71 ALJ 785.
178 J N Higgins, "Traumatic Stress Reactions in Police", (1995).
179 Higgins, 1995, p 8.
180 Higgins, 1995, p 11.
181 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [75].
182 Reasons of Callinan and Heydon JJ at [207]-[209].
183 Fahyat 58 [17]-[18] per Spigelman CJ, 87 [155]-[158] per M W Campbell AJA; cf reasons of Gleeson CJ at [11]-[13] and reasons of Crennan J at [261]-[262].
184 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [75]-[77].
185 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 221.
186 Reasons of the primary judge at 26.
187 Reasons of the primary judge at 60.
188 Reasons of the primary judge at 33-5.
189 Fox v Percy (2003) 214 CLR 118 at 125-6 [23], 127-8 [27]-[29] ; 197 ALR 201 at 207 and 208-9 ; 38 MVR 1 at 6-7 and 7-9 ; [2003] HCA 22 .
190 A fact remarked upon by the Court of Appeal: at 57 [10], 63 [42].
191 Reasons of the primary judge at 61.
192 Reasons of the primary judge at 45.
193 Cf Jones v Dunkel (1959) 101 CLR 298 at 321 ; [1959] ALR 367 at 381 per Windeyer J.
194 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 220-2.
195 Cf ss 6(2)(a) and (b) and 201 of the Police Service Act. See reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [27], [71]-[72].
196 Fahyat 57 [10], 58-9 [18]-[20], 87 [154].
197 Cf Woodsat CLR 498 [121]; ALR 173.
198 Braistinaat CLR 308-9; ALR 6-7; Neindorfat ALR 653 [84]-[85]; ALJR 359-60.
199 Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service, Final Report, Vol II: "Reform", (May 1997), p 207 [1.1] (conducted by Justice J R T Wood).
200 See H Luntz, "Torts Turnaround Downunder", (2001) 1 Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal 95, p 96.
201 Evidence of Dr Robertson, quoted above in these reasons at [149]; see also the reasons of Callinan and Heydon JJ at [209]-[210] and the reasons of Crennan J at [258].
202 (1980) 146 CLR 40 ; 29 ALR 217 ( Shirt ).
203 New South Wales v Fahy (2006) 155 IR 54 ; [2006] NSWCA 64 ( Fahy ).
204 Fahyat 58 [17]-[18].
205 (1980) 146 CLR 40 ; 29 ALR 217 .
206 Shirtat CLR 47-8; ALR 221.
207 Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd v Miller Steamship Co Pty Ltd [1967] 1 AC 617 at 642-3 ; [1967] ALR 97 at 104-5 ; [1966] 2 All ER 709 at 718-19 ( The Wagon Mound (No 2 )).
208 Koehler v Cerebos (Aust) Ltd (2005) 222 CLR 44 ; 214 ALR 355 ; [2005] HCA 15 ( Koehler ).
209 Koehlerat CLR 64 [54]; ALR 367.
210 (2002) 211 CLR 317 at 354 [101] ; 191 ALR 449 at 473 ; 36 MVR 1 at 23-4 ; [2002] HCA 35 .
211 (2005) 215 ALR 418 ; 79 ALJR 1104 ; 42 MVR 289 ; [2005] HCA 27 ( Jones ).
212 Jonesat ALR 438 [81]; ALJR 1119; MVR 308-9.
213 (2005) 223 CLR 422 ; 221 ALR 711 ; [2005] HCA 62 .
214 (2005) 223 CLR 486 ; 221 ALR 764 ; [2005] HCA 63 .
215 See also Nagle v Rottnest Island Authority (1993) 177 CLR 423 ; 112 ALR 393 in which this court made such a finding.
216 Cf Rosenberg v Percival (2001) 205 CLR 434 at 504-5 [221] ; 178 ALR 577 at 632 ; [2001] HCA 18 .
217 Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT); Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW); Personal Injuries (Liabilities and Damages) Act 2003 (NT); Civil Liability Act 2003 (Qld); Wrongs Act 1936 (SA), as amended by the Wrongs (Liability and Damages for Personal Injury) Amendment Act 2002 (SA), subsequently renamed Civil Liability Act 1936 (SA); Civil Liability Act 2002 (Tas); Wrongs Act 1958 (Vic), as amended by the Wrongs and Other Acts (Public Liability Insurance Reform) Act 2002 (Vic); Civil Liability Act 2002 (WA).
218 [1932] AC 562 at 580 ( Donoghue ).
219 (1936) 57 CLR 259 ; [1937] ALR 50 .
220 (2001) 206 CLR 512 ; 180 ALR 145 ; 33 MVR 289 ; [2001] HCA 29 .
221 Miller Steamship Co Pty Ltd v Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd [1963] SR (NSW) 948 at 957.
222 (1973) 128 CLR 99 at 101-2 ; [1972-3] ALR 1393 at 1394-5.
223 Hinz v Berry [1970] 2 QB 40 at 42 ; [1970] 1 All ER 1074 at 1075 per Lord Denning MR, approved by Windeyer J in Mount Isa Mines Ltd v Pusey (1970) 125 CLR 383 at 394-5 ; [1971] ALR 253 at 258-9 ( Mount Isa Mines ).
224 Tame v New South Wales (2002) 211 CLR 317 at 382-3 [194] ; 191 ALR 449 at 496 ; 36 MVR 1 at 46-8 ; [2002] HCA 35 ( Tame ) per Gummow and Kirby JJ.
225 Reasons of Gummow and Hayne JJ at [18]-[22].
226 Section 6(3)(b).
227 (1980) 146 CLR 40 ; 29 ALR 217 ( Shirt ).
228 Shirtat CLR 48; ALR 221 per Mason J.
229 Tame at CLR 352-3 [97]-[99]; ALR 471-2; MVR 22-3 per McHugh J.
230 Shirtat CLR 47; ALR 221 per Mason J.
231 New South Wales v Fahy (2006) 155 IR 54 at 56 [2] and [5] ; [2006] NSWCA 64 .
232 Mount Isa Mines ; New South Wales v Seedsman (2000) 217 ALR 583 ; [2000] NSWCA 119 ; cf White v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police [1999] 2 AC 455 ; [1999] 1 All ER 1 ( White ), in which a majority in the House of Lords decided that a duty, analogous to an employer's duty to protect an employee from physical harm, did not extend to protecting "employees" from psychiatric injury when there was no breach of the "employer's" duty to protect "employees" from physical injury. Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police [1992] 1 AC 310 ; [1991] 3 All ER 88 concerned the tragic Hillsborough stadium collapse. Spectators had not been compensated for psychiatric injury. One of the complications in White was a perceived injustice if police were compensated for psychiatric injury but spectators were not. Lord Goff of Chieveley (in dissent) at AC 486; All ER 25-6 noted that the majority decision was contrary to Chadwick v British Railways Board [1967] 1 WLR 912 ; [1967] 2 All ER 945 ( Chadwick ) and Mount Isa Mines .
233 (1970) 125 CLR 383 ; [1971] ALR 253 .
234 Dooley v Cammell Laird & Co Ltd [1951] 1 Lloyd's Rep 271; Chadwick .
235 Mount Isa Minesat CLR 394; ALR 259 per Windeyer J.
236 Mount Isa Minesat CLR 403-8; ALR 264-8 per Windeyer J.
237 Mount Isa Minesat CLR 394; ALR 258-9 per Windeyer J.
238 Victorian Railways Commissioners v Coultas (1888) 13 App Cas 222 at 226.
239 J G Fleming, The Law of Torts , 9th ed, LBC Information Services, Sydney, 1998, p 174.
240 Page v Smith [1996] AC 155 at 189 ; [1995] 2 All ER 736 at 759-60 per Lord Lloyd of Berwick.
241 Whiteat AC 502; All ER 41 per Lord Hoffmann.
242 Tameat CLR 374-8 [170]-[183]; ALR 489-93; MVR 40-4.
243 White at AC 502; All ER 40. See also P R Handford and N J Mullany, Mullany and Handford's Tort Liability for Psychiatric Damage , 2nd ed, Thomson Legal and Regulatory Ltd, Pymont, 2006, pp 124-8 [5.270]-[5.330] and pp 518-27 [21.50]-[21.180].
244 See, for example, Morris v KLM Royal Dutch Airlines [2002] 2 AC 628 at 679-80 [152]-[153] ; [2002] 2 All ER 565 at 612 per Lord Hobhouse of Woodborough.
245 Tameat CLR 378 [183]; ALR 492-3; MVR 43-4 per Gummow and Kirby JJ.
246 Tameat CLR 333 [17]; ALR 456; MVR 6-7 per Gleeson CJ, CLR 340 [51]; ALR 461-2; MVR 12-13 per Gaudron J, CLR 380-1 [190]-[191]; ALR 494-5; MVR 45-6 and CLR 383 [196]; ALR 496; MVR 47-8 per Gummow and Kirby JJ.
247 Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 .
248 Tameat CLR 333 [18]; ALR 456; MVR 6-8 and CLR 337 [35]-[36]; ALR 459; MVR 9-10 per Gleeson CJ, CLR 339 [45]; ALR 460; MVR 11-12 and CLR 340 [51]; ALR 461-2; MVR 12-13 per Gaudron J, CLR 380-1 [189]-[191]; ALR 494-5; MVR 45-6 per Gummow and Kirby JJ. In Gifford v Strang Patrick Stevedoring Pty Ltd (2003) 214 CLR 269 at 304 [99] ; 198 ALR 100 at 126 ; [2003] HCA 33 , Hayne J raised the possibility of the need to develop new control devices in substitution for rejected control mechanisms.
249 Tameat CLR 335 [26]; ALR 457; MVR 8-9 per Gleeson CJ, CLR 342 [57]; ALR 463; MVR 14 per Gaudron J.
250 Sullivan v Moody (2001) 207 CLR 562 at 582 [60] ; 183 ALR 404 at 417 ; 28 Fam LR 104 at 117 ; [2001] HCA 59 ( Sullivan ).
251 Koehler v Cerebos (Aust) Ltd (2005) 222 CLR 44 ; 214 ALR 355 ; [2005] HCA 15 .
252 Tameat CLR 335 [28]; ALR 457-8; MVR 8-9 per Gleeson CJ, CLR 342 [58]; ALR 463; MVR 14 per Gaudron J, CLR 361 [123]; ALR 478-9; MVR 29-30 per McHugh J, CLR 381 [191]; ALR 495; MVR 45-6 per Gummow and Kirby JJ, CLR 417-18 [296]; ALR 524; MVR 75-6 per Hayne J, CLR 425 [323]; ALR 530-1; MVR 81-2 per Callinan J. See Sullivanat CLR 582 [60]; ALR 417; Fam LR 117
253 Collins v First Quench Retailing Ltd 2003 SLT 1220
254 Cf Walker v Northumberland County Council [1995] 1 All ER 737 at 739 per Colman J; Keen v Tayside Contracts 2003 SLT 500 at 511 [69] per Lady Paton
255 Mount Isa Minesat CLR 405; ALR 266 per Windeyer J