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Thomas v Mowbray
[2007] HCA 33
233 CLR 307

Thomas
vMowbray

Court:

High Court of Australia

Judges: Gleeson CJ
Gummow J
Kirby J
Hayne J
Callinan J
Heydon J
Crennan J

Hearing date:
Judgment date: 2 August 2007

ORDER

The questions stated in the further amended special case filed on 15 February 2007 be answered as follows:

(1)

Q. Is Division 104 of the Criminal Code invalid because it confers on a federal court non-judicial power contrary to Chapter III of the Commonwealth Constitution?

A. Subdivision B of Division 104 is valid; otherwise inappropriate to answer.

(2)

Q. Is Division 104 of the Criminal Code invalid because in so far as it confers judicial power on a federal court, it authorises the exercise of that power in a manner contrary to Chapter III of the Commonwealth Constitution?

A. Subdivision B of Division 104 is valid; otherwise inappropriate to answer.

(3)

Q. Is Division 104 of the Criminal Code invalid because it is not supported by one or more express or implied heads of legislative power under the Commonwealth Constitution?

A. Subdivision B of Division 104 is valid; otherwise inappropriate to answer.

(4)

Q. Who should pay the costs of the special case?

A. The plaintiff should pay the costs of the Commonwealth of the special case.

[1]

Greenwood, "International Law and the 'War Against Terrorism'", (2002) 78 International Affairs 301 at 307-308.

[2]

R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 278 per Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ.

[3]

Willoughby , The Constitutional Law of the United States, 2nd ed (1929) at 1619-1620.

[4]

cf Fardon v Attorney-General (Qld) (2004) 223 CLR 575 .

[5]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 .

[6]

Dangerous Prisoners (Sexual Offenders) Act 2003 (Q), s 3.

[7]

Dangerous Prisoners (Sexual Offenders) Act 2003 (Q), s 13(2).

[8]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 at 596-597 [34].

[9]

Blackstone , Commentaries on the Laws of England, ( 1769), Bk IV at 248.

[10]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 at 586 [2].

[11]

cf (1992) 176 CLR 1 at 28.

[12]

It is not necessary to decide in this case the limits of these exceptions, or whether their disparate character calls into question the accuracy of the formulation of general principle.

[13]

cf Mulholland v Australian Electoral Commission (2004) 220 CLR 181 at 196-200 [31]-[40].

[14]

[1919] AC 548 at 562-563.

[15]

(1922) 30 CLR 315 at 323-324.

[16]

(1971) 125 CLR 353 at 376.

[17]

As to the United Kingdom, see Wilberforce, Campbell and Elles , The Law of Restrictive Trade Practices and Monopolies, 2nd ed (1966) at 385, 387.

[18]

(1937) 37 SR (NSW) 394 at 415.

[19]

(2004) 218 CLR 530 at 587-590 [161]-[171].

[20]

In re Chemists' Federation Agreement (No 2) [1958] 1 WLR 1192 ; [1958] 3 All ER 448 .

[21]

Stanford v Roberts [1901] 1 Ch 440 at 444.

[22]

(1975) 134 CLR 559 at 615.

[23]

(1992) 177 CLR 106 at 143.

[24]

(1997) 189 CLR 579 at 614-615.

[25]

Jones v Pritchard [1908] 1 Ch 630 at 638.

[26]

(1998) 43 NSWLR 504 .

[27]

(1998) 195 CLR 424 at 453-454 [48].

[28]

(1886) 11 App Cas 197 at 203.

[29]

The 2002 edition of the American publication Words and Phrases, Vol 36A at 223- 230 cites 83 United States cases construing "reasonably necessary" in American statutes.

[30]

(1988) 164 CLR 465 .

[31]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 at 593 [22], 606 [60], 657 [225].

[32]

(1988) 166 CLR 69 at 78.

[33]

(1956) 94 CLR 554 at 560.

[34]

The Criminal Code is contained in the Schedule of the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth). Division 104 is contained in Pt 5.3.

[35]

Schedule 4, Pt 1, Item 24.

[36]

More precisely, the 2005 Act, Sch 4, Pt 1, Item 24, which inserted Div 104 into the Code.

[37]

(1997) 191 CLR 119 .

[38]

(2002) 209 CLR 372 .

[39]

These are as follows:

"(a)

causes serious harm that is physical harm to a person; or

(b)

causes serious damage to property; or

(c)

causes a person's death; or

(d)

endangers a person's life, other than the life of the person taking the action; or

(e)

creates a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public; or

(f)

seriously interferes with, seriously disrupts, or destroys, an electronic system including, but not limited to:

(i): an information system; or
(ii): a telecommunications system; or
(iii): a financial system; or
(iv): a system used for the delivery of essential government services; or
(v): a system used for, or by, an essential public utility; or
(vi): a system used for, or by, a transport system".

The persons and property in question may be situated within or outside Australia (subs (4)).

[40]

Subdivision C (ss 104.6-104.11) is headed "Making an urgent interim control order" and provides in certain circumstances for the making of applications by a senior AFP member without first obtaining the consent of the Attorney-General under s 104.2.

[41]

It states:

"(1): A control order that is in force at the end of 10 years after the day on which this Division commences ceases to be in force at that time.
(2): A control order cannot be requested, made or confirmed after the end of 10 years after the day on which this Division commences."

[42]

Re Colina; ; Ex parte Torney (1999) 200 CLR 386 at 395 [16], 428 [109].

[43]

cf R v Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration; Ex parte Barrett (1945) 70 CLR 141 at 165-166.

[44]

See Electric Light and Power Supply Corporation Ltd v Electricity Commission of NSW (1956) 94 CLR 554 at 560 ; Mansfield v Director of Public Prosecutions (WA) (2006) 226 CLR 486 at 491 [7 ]; Civil Aviation Safety Authority v Boatman (2004) 138 FCR 384 at 394.

[45]

(1997) 74 FCR 7 at 11-12.

[46]

Meat and Allied Trades Federation of Australia (Queensland Division) Union of Employers v Australasian Meat Industry Union of Employees (Queensland Branch) (1989) 90 ALR 187 .

[47]

(1953) 89 CLR 78 at 90.

[48]

cf Leach v R (2007) 81 ALJR 598 at 608 [38]; 232 ALR 325 at 337 ; John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd v Gacic [2007] HCA 28 at [28].

[49]

Subsection (2A) was added by Sch 1 of the Statute Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1987 (Cth) which commenced on 18 December 1987 .

[50]

(1999) 199 CLR 462 at 520-521 [145]-[149]. See further the reasons of McHugh, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ in Baker v R (2004) 223 CLR 513 at 531-532 [40]-[42].

[51]

(1957) 100 CLR 277 at 305. See also the remarks of Gaudron J in Nicholas v R (1998) 193 CLR 173 at 208-209 [74].

[52]

APLA Ltd v Legal Services Commissioner (NSW) (2005) 224 CLR 322 at 351-352 [30].

[53]

[2007] HCA 29 at [45]-[47].

[54]

[2007] HCA 29 at [49].

[55]

(1996) 189 CLR 1 at 11.

[56]

Moore , The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, 2nd ed (1910) at 101, quoted by Evatt J in Victorian Stevedoring & General Contracting Co Pty Ltd and Meakes v Dignan (1931) 46 CLR 73 at 117. The learned author added: "The danger of the usurpation of judicial power by the Legislature or the Executive furnishes a long chapter in our constitutional history which is familiar to every student."

[57]

In addition, there are certain traditional species of jurisdiction which do not require the quelling of controversies: see R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 368.

[58]

Fencott v Muller (1983) 152 CLR 570 at 608.

[59]

The Commonwealth v Grunseit (1943) 67 CLR 58 at 82. See Plaintiff S 157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476 at 512-513 [101]-[102].

[60]

Builders' Labourers' Case (1957) 100 CLR 277 at 289-290.

[61]

(1960) 103 CLR 368 .

[62]

(1960) 103 CLR 368 at 383.

[63]

(1953) 89 CLR 78 at 90; cf Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital v Thornton (1953) 87 CLR 144 at 151.

[64]

(1972) 127 CLR 617 .

[65]

(1972) 127 CLR 588 .

[66]

(1972) 127 CLR 588 at 608 (footnote omitted).

[67]

See, generally, Dietrich, "Giving Content to General Concepts", (2005) 29 Melbourne University Law Review 218 at 233-236 in the section headed "General Concepts Operating 'At Large' through Statute".

[68]

(1943) 67 CLR 25 at 54-56.

[69]

SR 1942 No 65 .

[70]

(1957) 100 CLR 277 .

[71]

(1963) 114 CLR 582 .

[72]

Attorney-General (ex rel Lumley) and Lumley v T S Gill & Son Pty Ltd [1927] VLR 22 .

[73]

(1952) 87 CLR 267 at 289-290.

[74]

See, for example, Crimes Act 1900 (NSW), ss 562AE and 562AI; Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 1989 (Q), s 13; Domestic Violence Act 1994 (SA), s 4; Family Violence Act 2004 (Tas), s 16; Crimes (Family Violence) Act 1987 (Vic), s 4; Restraining Orders Act 1997 (WA), ss 34 and 35 ; Domestic Violence and Protection Orders Act 2001 (ACT), s 8; Domestic Violence Act (NT), s 4.

[75]

(2006) 81 ALJR 254 ; 231 ALR 277 . See also Cattanach v Melchior (2003) 215 CLR 1 .

[76]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 277.

[77]

CIC Insurance Ltd v Bankstown Football Club Ltd (1997) 187 CLR 384 at 408.

[78]

Stenhouse v Coleman (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 469 per Dixon J ; Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 255 per Fullagar J.

[79]

Holmes (ed) , The Oxford Companion to Military History, ( 2001) at 466-467.

[80]

(1991) 173 CLR 167 .

[81]

R v Trade Practices Tribunal; Ex parte Tasmanian Breweries Pty Ltd (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 365-366.

[82]

(1970) 123 CLR 361 at 401.

[83]

R v Joske; Ex parte Shop Distributive and Allied Employees' Assn (1976) 135 CLR 194 at 217.

[84]

(1957) 100 CLR 277 at 289.

[85]

(1957) 100 CLR 277 at 310.

[86]

Zines , The High Court and the Constitution, 4th ed (1997) at 195.

[87]

(1960) 103 CLR 368 at 383.

[88]

Dietrich, "Giving Content to General Concepts", (2005) 29 Melbourne University Law Review 218 at 238-240.

[89]

4 Wheat 316 at 413-414 [ 17 US 159 at 203] (1819).

[90]

4 Wheat 316 at 357 [ 17 US 159 at 177] (1819). See also Jumbunna Coal Mine, No Liability v Victorian Coal Miners' Assn (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 344 ; Farey v Burvett (1916) 21 CLR 433 at 440 ; Mulholland v Australian Electoral Commission (2004) 220 CLR 181 at 199-200 [39]-[40].

[91]

(1955) 92 CLR 157 .

[92]

(1907) 4 CLR (Pt 2) 1497.

[93]

Re Ditfort; ; Ex parte Deputy Commissioner of Taxation (1988) 19 FCR 347 at 370.

[94]

South Australia v The Commonwealth (1962) 108 CLR 130 at 141.

[95]

Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70 at 138-139.

[96]

Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70 at 138-139; cf Attorney-General (United Kingdom) v Heinemann Publishers Australia Pty Ltd (1988) 165 CLR 30 at 44- 45 and 53 -54.

[97]

(1988) 164 CLR 465 at 476.

[98]

(1998) 193 CLR 173 at 208-209 [74].

[99]

APLA Ltd v Legal Services Commissioner (NSW) (2005) 224 CLR 322 at 411 [247].

[100]

(1938) 60 CLR 336 .

[101]

Nicholas v R (1998) 193 CLR 173 at 188-190 [23]-[24], 203 [55], 234-236 [152]-[156]; 272-274 [234]-[238].

[102]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 .

[103]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 at 612 [80].

[104]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 at 613 [84].

[105]

(1971) 1 SASR 103 .

[106]

Story , Commentaries on Equity Jurisprudence, as administered in England and America, 13th ed (1886), Vol 2, §1477. See also Baynum v Baynum ( 1746-47) Amb 63 [ 27 ER 36 ].

[107]

Lansbury v Riley [1914] 3 KB 229 .

[108]

Archbold , Pleading, Evidence and Practice in Criminal Cases, 42nd ed (1985) at 628-629 [5-116]; see also Archbold , Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice, ( 2007) at 606 [5-121a].

[109]

(1984) 154 CLR 404 at 469.

[110]

cf Bass v Permanent Trustee Co Ltd (1999) 198 CLR 334 at 355-357 [45]-[49 ]; Smith v ANL Ltd (2000) 204 CLR 493 at 510-511 [39].

[111]

(1996) 187 CLR 579 at 600.

[112]

Hamilton, Madison and Jay , The Federalist, Wright (ed), (1961) at 200.

[113]

Hamilton, Madison and Jay , The Federalist, Wright (ed), (1961) at 199-200.

[114]

(1916) 21 CLR 433 at 440.

[115]

(1916) 21 CLR 433 at 466.

[116]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 194.

[117]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 259.

[118]

(2006) 81 ALJR 34 at 94 [212]; 231 ALR 1 at 63-64.

[119]

See, for example, The Riot Act of 1715 (1 Geo I, stat 2, c 5) which was directed to preventing "tumults" and "riotous assemblies" which disturbed "the publick peace".

[120]

See the text of The Treason Act of 1351 (25 Edw III, Stat 5, c 2) set out in Joyce v Director of Public Prosecutions [1946] AC 347 at 365.

[121]

3 Coke's Institutes §§9, 10 ; R v Frost ( 1839) 9 Car & P 129 at 161 [ 173 ER 771 at 785].

[122]

R v Lord George Gordon (1781) 2 Dougl 590 at 592 [ 99 ER 372 at 373].

[123]

In the course of the Gordon Riots, Lord Mansfield's house on Bloomsbury Square was sacked and the contents burned in the Square: Heward , Lord Mansfield, ( 1979) at 157-158.

[124]

24 Hen VIII, c 12.

[125]

Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 559-560.

[126]

63 & 64 Vict, c 12.

[127]

Moore , The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, 2nd ed (1910) at 67.

[128]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 259. See also the judgment of Dixon J in Burns v Ransley (1949) 79 CLR 101 at 116.

[129]

(1988) 166 CLR 79 at 92-95.

[130]

Farey v Burvett (1916) 21 CLR 433 .

[131]

Wertheim v The Commonwealth (1945) 69 CLR 601 .

[132]

Queensland Newspapers Pty Ltd v McTavish (1951) 85 CLR 30 .

[133]

Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 192. Fullagar J spoke of the Communist Party Case in similar terms in Marcus Clark & Co Ltd v The Commonwealth (1952) 87 CLR 177 at 253.

[134]

(2006) 80 ALJR 1036 at 1044 [18]; 227 ALR 495 at 502-503.

[135]

[2002] 1 SCR 3 at 50.

[136]

[2002] 1 SCR 3 at 50.

[137]

(2006) 80 ALJR 1036 at 1046 [30]; 227 ALR 495 at 505.

[138]

Victoria v The Commonwealth (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 485 per Brennan CJ, Toohey, Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ.

[139]

(1991) 172 CLR 501 .

[140]

Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 632.

[141]

Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 528-531.

[142]

Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 599-603.

[143]

Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 695-696.

[144]

Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 712-714.

[145]

For the purposes of Australian domestic law, a "terrorist act" is defined in the Code, s 100.1.

[146]

The Act, s 3 and Sch 4.

[147]

See Suresh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2002] 1 SCR 3 at 53-54 [94]-[95]; Young, "Defining Terrorism: The Evolution of Terrorism as a Legal Concept in International Law and its Influence on Definitions in Domestic Legislation", (2006) 29 Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 23 ("Young") at 24, 27-29; Saul , Defining Terrorism in International Law, ( 2006) ("Saul") at 1-7; Hocking , Terror Laws: ASIO, counter-terrorism and the threat to democracy, ( 2004) ("Hocking") at 1-12.

[148]

Australia, House of Representatives , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 23 February 1978 at 152-155.

[149]

Hope , Protective Security Review: Report, Parliamentary Paper No 397/1979, unclassified version, (1979) at 271 (Appendix 7 -- Terms of Reference).

[150]

Hope Review at xv.

[151]

Hope Review at 16-17 [2.20] citing J Bowyer Bell, Columbia University. See Bell , Transnational Terror, ( 1975) at 75. See also Hope Review at 9-10 [2.2]-[2.3].

[152]

"Opinion of Sir Victor Windeyer, KBE, CB, DSO on certain questions concerning the position of members of the defence force when called out to aid the civil power", reproduced as App 9 to Hope Review ("Windeyer Opinion, Hope Review").

[153]

Windeyer Opinion, Hope Review at 291-292. See also Young (2006) 29 Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 23 at 58-59.

[154]

Table 2 of Appendix 11 of the Hope Review at 306 recorded that 2,690 international terrorist incidents had occurred between 1968 and 1977 . Appendix 12 at 311-313 recorded the number of incidents (265) of politically motivated violence and vandalism in Australia over the period 1963-1977. A selection of motivations listed included "anti war/conscription", "anti apartheid", "anti uranium/environment" and "aboriginal rights".

[155]

Year Book ( 1477) 17 Edw IV 1. See also Chief Executive Officer of Customs v El Hajje (2005) 224 CLR 159 at 182 [65].

[156]

Constitution, ss 75(iii) and (v), 76(i); Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth), s 30(a).

[157]

Criminal Code Act (NT), ss 50-55. Those provisions entered into force on 1 January 1984 . See further Williams, "The rule of law and the regulation of terrorism in Australia and New Zealand", in Ramraj, Hor and Roach (eds) , Global Anti-Terrorism Law and Policy, ( 2005) 534 at 538.

[158]

See Rose and Nestorovska, "Australian counter-terrorism offences: Necessity and clarity in federal criminal law reforms", (2007) 31 Criminal Law Journal 20 ("Rose and Nestorovska") at 24-25.

[159]

See, for example, Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002 (Cth); Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism Act 2002 (Cth); Border Security Legislation Amendment Act 2002 (Cth); Telecommunications Interception Legislation Amendment Act 2002 (Cth); Criminal Code Amendment (Terrorist Organisations) Act 2002 (Cth); Criminal Code Amendment (Suppression of Terrorist Bombings) Act 2002 (Cth); Criminal Code Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2003 (Cth); ASIO Legislation Amendment Act 2003 (Cth); Criminal Code Amendment (Terrorist Organisations) Act 2004 (Cth); Anti-terrorism Act 2004 (Cth); Anti-terrorism Act (No 2) 2004 (Cth); Anti-Terrorism Act 2005 (Cth); Anti-Terrorism Act (No 2) 2005 (Cth); Telecommunications (Interception) Amendment Act 2006 (Cth); ASIO Legislation Amendment Act 2006 (Cth). See further Lynch and Williams , What Price Security? Taking Stock of Australia's Anti-Terror Laws, ( 2006).

[160]

Terrorism (Commonwealth Powers) Act 2002 (NSW); Terrorism (Commonwealth Powers) Act 2003 (Vic); Terrorism (Commonwealth Powers) Act 2002 (SA); Terrorism (Commonwealth Powers) Act 2002 (Q); Terrorism (Commonwealth Powers) Act 2002 (WA); Terrorism (Commonwealth Powers) Act 2002 (Tas).

[161]

Australia, House of Representatives , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 3 November 2005 at 102-104.

[162]

See reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [43]-[51]; reasons of Callinan J at [564]-[581].

[163]

For the text of this provision see the reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [64]; reasons of Callinan J at [572].

[164]

The definition is reproduced in the reasons of Callinan J at [566]. See also reasons of Gleeson CJ at [8]; reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [44]; reasons of Hayne J at [404]; cf Rose and Nestorovska (2007) 31 Criminal Law Journal 20 at 26-30.

[165]

Reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [48].

[166]

See Jabbour v Thomas ( 2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 39 [50].

[167]

(2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 33 [3].

[168]

An edited version of the judgment is reported as Jabbour v Thomas ( 2006) 165 A Crim R 32.

[169]

(2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 34 [7]-[9].

[170]

See the Code, ss 104.4(1)(c)(i) and 104.4(1)(c)(ii). Note also reasons of Hayne J at [480]-[487].

[171]

See the Code, s 104.4(1)(d).

[172]

See (2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 34 [8].

[173]

(2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 37 [36].

[174]

(2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 37 [36]. It will be necessary later to consider the nature of the evidence of the second defendant relied upon by Mowbray FM in making the interim order. See below at [255]-[261].

[175]

(2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 38-40 [45]-[62].

[176]

See reasons of Gleeson CJ at [2]; reasons of Callinan J at [554].

[177]

Subject to the Code, s 104.5(6).

[178]

(2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 39 [52]-[56].

[179]

The list was approximately 300 pages long. See (2006) 165 A Crim R 32 at 39 [56]-[57].

[180]

The Code, s 102.6(1).

[181]

Pursuant to Passports Act 1938 (Cth), s 9A(1)(e). See R v Thomas (No 3) (2006) 14 VR 512 at 513 [1].

[182]

The Code, s 102.7(1).

[183]

R v Thomas (No 3) (2006) 14 VR 512 at 513 [1].

[184]

See R v Thomas (No 3) (2006) 14 VR 512 at 513 [2]-[3 ]; R v Thomas (2006) 14 VR 475 .

[185]

R v Thomas (2006) 14 VR 475 at 509 [120].

[186]

R v Thomas (No 3) (2006) 14 VR 512 at 521 [37]-[38].

[187]

See eg reasons of Gleeson CJ at [3].

[188]

See the Code, ss 100.3, 100.4(2)-(6).

[189]

See Referring Act, s 4(1)(b).

[190]

Referring Act, s 3 (emphasis added).

[191]

Referring Act, s 3.

[192]

[2007] HCATrans 078 at 15366-15375.

[193]

cf reasons of Gleeson CJ at [4]-[6]; reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [127]-[131]; reasons of Hayne J at [446]-[456].

[194]

See Corporations Referral, s 3.

[195]

Above at [188].

[196]

See Victoria, Legislative Assembly , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 20 March 2001 at 303.

[197]

See [2007] HCATrans 078 at 13865-13871.

[198]

(1964) 113 CLR 207 .

[199]

(1964) 113 CLR 207 at 226 per Dixon CJ, Kitto, Taylor, Menzies, Windeyer and Owen JJ.

[200]

See "Commonwealth Powers Bill: A Repletion of Opinions", (1943) 16 Australian Law Journal 323 at 325, referring to arguments made by the Commonwealth legal advisers (Sir Robert Garran, Sir George Knowles and Professor K H Bailey) in respect of the Commonwealth Powers Bill produced following a Constitutional Convention in Canberra in December 1942. See also Australian National Airways (1964) 113 CLR 207 at 209-210.

[201]

Victoria, Legislative Assembly , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 25 March 2003 at 525.

[202]

Victoria, Legislative Assembly , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 20 March 2001 at 302.

[203]

Victoria, Legislative Assembly , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 20 March 2001 at 302.

[204]

Victoria, Legislative Assembly , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 20 March 2001 at 304.

[205]

Agreement on Counter-terrorism Laws, (2004), Annex AE to the special case.

[206]

See Australia, House of Representatives , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 3 November 2005 at 102.

[207]

See Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984 (Vic), s 35(a).

[208]

Australian National Airways (1964) 113 CLR 207 at 225-226 per Dixon CJ, Kitto, Taylor, Menzies, Windeyer and Owen JJ.

[209]

Australian National Airways (1964) 113 CLR 207 at 226.

[210]

Referring Act, s 4(1)(b).

[211]

cf Attorney-General (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545 at 564-566 [46]-[52].

[212]

See Pearce and Geddes , Statutory Interpretation in Australia, 6th ed (2006) at 176-177 [5.16], 188-189 [5.29].

[213]

See Potter v Minahan (1908) 7 CLR 277 at 304 ; Coco v R (1994) 179 CLR 427 at 437 and 446 ; Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337 at 381 [89 ]; Daniels Corporation International Pty Ltd v Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (2002) 213 CLR 543 at 553 [11 ]; Plaintiff S 157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476 at 492 [30 ]; Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562 at 577-578 [19]-[21], 643 [241].

[214]

See Jumbunna Coal Mine, No Liability v Victorian Coal Miners' Assn (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 363 ; Zachariassen v The Commonwealth (1917) 24 CLR 166 at 181 ; Polites v The Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 69 75 77 and 79 ; Meyer Heine Pty Ltd v China Navigation Co Ltd (1966) 115 CLR 10 at 31 ; Chu Kheng Lim v Minister for Immigration (1992) 176 CLR 1 at 38 ; Coco (1994) 179 CLR 427 at 437 ; Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 287-288.

[215]

See below at [379]-[382].

[216]

Jumbunna (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 363-364.

[217]

cf New South Wales v Commonwealth ( " Work Choices ") (2006) 81 ALJR 34 ; 231 ALR 1 ; Attorney-General (Vic) v Andrews (2007) 81 ALJR 729 ; 233 ALR 389 .

[218]

See below at [381]-[382].

[219]

See reasons of Hayne J at [456]; cf reasons of Callinan J at [602]-[607].

[220]

Victoria, Legislative Assembly , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 25 March 2003 at 525.

[221]

Referring Act, s 5.

[222]

Referring Act, s 5(2).

[223]

cf [2007] HCATrans 078 at 14035.

[224]

The Code, s 104.32.

[225]

The Act, s 4.

[226]

See the Code, ss 100.3, 100.4(2)-(6); cf reasons of Callinan J at [568].

[227]

See the Code, s 100.3.

[228]

See Farey v Burvett (1916) 21 CLR 433 at 440-441 ; Andrews v Howell (1941) 65 CLR 255 at 278 ; Stenhouse v Coleman (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471 ; Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 273-274 ; Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 597. See also Marcus Clark & Co Ltd v The Commonwealth (1952) 87 CLR 177 at 218 and 256 ; Zines , The High Court and the Constitution, 4th ed (1997) ("Zines") at 222-223.

[229]

See Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 191-192 195 268 275 and 278 .

[230]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 . See also Marcus Clark (1952) 87 CLR 177 .

[231]

The recitals to the Dissolution Act stated, inter alia, that the Australian Communist Party was "an integral part of the world communist revolutionary movement", and was engaged "in activities or operations designed to bring about the overthrow or dislocation of the established system of government of Australia and the attainment of economic, industrial or political ends by force, violence, intimidation or fraudulent practices". See also Zines at 225-226.

[232]

See [2007] HCATrans 076 at 8484- 8487 and 10080 -10086; cf at 10799-10884.

[233]

See Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 9-10 191-192 197- 198 and 200 ; reasons of Hayne J at [428]-[431].

[234]

Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 206 per McTiernan J. See also at 222, 263-265. The doctrine is commonly expressed by reference to the maxim "the stream cannot rise above its source": see Heiner v Scott (1914) 19 CLR 381 at 393 per Griffith CJ, cited in Zines at 219.

[235]

See further the Code, s 100.3(1).

[236]

The Code, s 100.3(1)(b).

[237]

The Code, s 100.4(2)-(6); cf reasons of Callinan J at [568].

[238]

See reasons of Hayne J at [427 ]; Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 200-203 per Dixon J.

[239]

See Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 189; the Code, s 100.4(2)-(6); cf reasons of Callinan J at [568].

[240]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 222 per Williams J, affd in Hughes and Vale Pty Ltd v New South Wales [No2] (1955) 93 CLR 127 at 165. See also Shrimpton v The Commonwealth (1945) 69 CLR 613 at 629-630.

[241]

(1941) 65 CLR 255 at 278. See also Stenhouse (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471-472.

[242]

(1999) 199 CLR 462 at 484 [38].

[243]

Kenny, "Constitutional Fact Ascertainment", (1990) 1 Public Law Review 134 ("Kenny") at 155.

[244]

(1998) 193 CLR 128 at 149 [53]-[54] (citations omitted).

[245]

Andrews v Howell (1941) 65 CLR 255 at 278.

[246]

(1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471.

[247]

Stenhouse (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471.

[248]

Stenhouse (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 469 per Dixon J. See also Breen v Sneddon (1961) 106 CLR 406 at 411-412 ; Queensland v The Commonwealth (1989) 167 CLR 232 at 239 ; Levy v Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 598-599; Kenny (1990) 1 Public Law Review 134 at 154.

[249]

Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 262-263 ; Victoria v The Commonwealth and Connor (1975) 134 CLR 81 at 118 ; Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 564. See also Kartinyeri (1998) 195 CLR 337 at 381 [89 ]; Plaintiff S 157/2002 (2003) 211 CLR 476 at 492 [31], 513-514 [103]-[104].

[250]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 262-263 (citation omitted).

[251]

Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 141 per Latham CJ. See also at 188 per Dixon J.

[252]

Zines at 226; see also Marcus Clark (1952) 87 CLR 177 at 215- 216 and 253 -254.

[253]

Marcus Clark (1952) 87 CLR 177 at 253.

[254]

Hope Review at 32 [3.16].

[255]

Marcus Clark (1952) 87 CLR 177 at 215-216. See also Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 198 and 201 -202; Zines at 225-229.

[256]

See below at [238]-[252].

[257]

See reasons of Hayne J at [405].

[258]

See Burns v Ransley (1949) 79 CLR 101 ; R v Sharkey (1949) 79 CLR 121 .

[259]

See [2007] HCATrans 076 at 10028. See generally at 9975-10031.

[260]

Bank of NSW v The Commonwealth ( "the Bank Nationalisation Case ") (1948) 76 CLR 1 at 185 per Latham CJ.

[261]

Lamshed v Lake (1958) 99 CLR 132 at 154; cf Re Governor, Goulburn Correctional Centre; ; Ex parte Eastman (1999) 200 CLR 322 at 372-373 [130]-[131 ]; Work Choices (2006) 81 ALJR 34 at 145 [491]; 231 ALR 1 at 133.

[262]

Contrast Farey (1916) 21 CLR 433 at 441 ; R v Foster (1949) 79 CLR 43 at 81.

[263]

(1991) 172 CLR 501 at 592-593, citing Richardson v Forestry Commission (1988) 164 CLR 261 at 326 per Dawson J.

[264]

See Farey (1916) 21 CLR 433 ; Attorney-General (Vict) v The Commonwealth (1935) 52 CLR 533 ; Silk Bros Pty Ltd v State Electricity Commission of Victoria (1943) 67 CLR 1 ; Ferguson v The Commonwealth (1943) 66 CLR 432 ; Peacock v Newtown Marrickville and General Co-operative Building Society No4 Ltd (1943) 67 CLR 25 ; de Mestre v Chisholm (1944) 69 CLR 51 ; Miller v The Commonwealth (1946) 73 CLR 187 ; cf The Commonwealth v Australian Commonwealth Shipping Board (1926) 39 CLR 1 ; R v University of Sydney; Ex parte Drummond (1943) 67 CLR 95 ; Victorian Chamber of Manufactures v The Commonwealth (Industrial Lighting Regulations) (1943) 67 CLR 413 ; Wertheim v The Commonwealth (1945) 69 CLR 601 .

[265]

Farey (1916) 21 CLR 433 at 453 per Isaacs J; cf Posner , Not a Suicide Pact: The Constitution in a Time of National Emergency, ( 2006).

[266]

Foster (1949) 79 CLR 43 at 81.

[267]

(1949) 79 CLR 43 at 83 per Latham CJ, Rich, Dixon, McTiernan, Williams and Webb JJ.

[268]

See reasons of Hayne J at [414]-[416].

[269]

Grain Pool of Western Australia v Commonwealth (2000) 202 CLR 479 at 522-523 [111].

[270]

Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 253-254 per Fullagar J, citing Farey (1916) 21 CLR 433 at 453 per Isaacs J. See also Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc v The Commonwealth (1943) 67 CLR 116 at 132-133 per Latham CJ ; Hume v Higgins (1949) 78 CLR 116 at 133-134 per Dixon J ; Koon Wing Lau v Calwell (1949) 80 CLR 533 at 585 ; Re Aird; ; Ex parte Alpert (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 328 [63] per Gummow J.

[271]

See, for example , Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 195 206-207 227- 230 and 258 -259 and also Lloyd v Wallach (1915) 20 CLR 299 ; Ex parte Walsh [1942] ALR 359 ; Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 592-593.

[272]

It should be noted that, following the attacks in the United States on 11 September 2001 , the United States of America and Australia invoked Art IV of the ANZUS Treaty. Article IV provides:

"Each Party recognizes that an armed attack in the Pacific Area on any of the Parties would be dangerous to its own peace and safety and declares that it would act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes.

Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall be immediately reported to the Security Council of the United Nations. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security."

[273]

See Blackshield and Williams , Australian Constitutional Law and Theory, 4th ed (2006) at 870; Winterton, "The Communist Party Case", in Lee and Winterton (eds) , Australian Constitutional Landmarks, ( 2003) ("Lee and Winterton") 108 at 115-124.

[274]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 196.

[275]

Reasons of Callinan J at [589].

[276]

Ayres , Owen Dixon, new ed (2007) at 115-218.

[277]

Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 187: "History and not only ancient history, shows that in countries where democratic institutions have been unconstitutionally superseded, it has been done not seldom by those holding the executive power."

[278]

See Marcus Clark (1952) 87 CLR 177 at 261-262. See also Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 188-189; Hope Review at 29-30 [3.7 ]; Dennis v United States 341 US 494 at 587-588 (1951) per Douglas J (diss). Cf reasons of Hayne J at [442].

[279]

See White, "The Executive and the Military", (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 438 ("White") at 444-445.

[280]

See Windeyer Opinion, Hope Review at 278-279. See also Australia, House of Representatives , Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard), 23 February 1978 at 159, cited in "Legal and constitutional problems of protective security arrangements in Australia", (1978) 52 Australian Law Journal 296 at 298.

[281]

See Johnston, " Re Tracey: Some Implications for the Military-Civil Authority Relationship", (1990) 20 University of Western Australia Law Review 73 ("Johnston") at 81, citing Blackshield, "The Siege of Bowral -- The Legal Issues", (1978) 4(9) Pacific Defence Reporter 6 at 6-9; "Legal and constitutional problems of protective security arrangements in Australia", (1978) 52 Australian Law Journal 296.

[282]

See Johnston (1990) 20 University of Western Australia Law Review 73 at 77, where it was suggested that s 119 may amount to an implied prohibition.

[283]

See Hope Review at 32-33 [3.18].

[284]

See further White (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 438; Johnston (1990) 20 University of Western Australia Law Review 73 at 75-81.

[285]

See Sharkey (1949) 79 CLR 121 at 151; Quick and Garran , The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth, ( 1901) ("Quick and Garran") at 964-965. Section 119 was modelled on Art IV, §4 of the United States Constitution.

[286]

See Sharkey (1949) 79 CLR 121 at 151-152; Quick and Garran at 964; White (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 438 at 444.

[287]

See Dennis v United States 341 US 494 at 587-588 (1951) per Douglas J (diss).

[288]

Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 327-328 [61] per Gummow J (Gleeson CJ and Hayne J agreeing at 314 [9] and 356 [156] respectively). See further Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 195 per Dixon J, 259 per Fullagar J.

[289]

(2004) 220 CLR 308 at 318 [28], 327-328 [61].

[290]

See also Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses (1943) 67 CLR 116 at 132 and 137 ; Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 259.

[291]

Lee, Hanks and Morabito , In the Name of National Security: The Legal Dimensions, ( 1995) at 21, citing Commonwealth, Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security , Fourth Report, ( 1977), Vol 1 at 16. See also Greenwood, "International Law and the 'War Against Terrorism'", (2002) 78 International Affairs 301 at 307.

[292]

See further Farey (1916) 21 CLR 433 at 440 per Griffith CJ. See also at 452.

[293]

See [2007] HCATrans 076 at 9075. See also at 8786-8814, 9808-9810. Cf reasons of Heydon J at [647]-[648].

[294]

See also reasons of Hayne J at [411]-[422].

[295]

Contrast reasons of Callinan J at [520]-[553].

[296]

2007 SCC 9 .

[297]

Charkaoui 2007 SCC 9 at [64].

[298]

Pursuant to the Code, s 104.2(3).

[299]

Reasons of Heydon J at [614], [629]-[639], [642].

[300]

Stenhouse (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471.

[301]

Stenhouse (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 469 per Dixon J. See also Breen (1961) 106 CLR 406 at 411-412 ; Queensland v The Commonwealth (1989) 167 CLR 232 at 239 ; Levy (1997) 189 CLR 579 at 598-599; Kenny (1990) 1 Public Law Review 134 at 154.

[302]

cf reasons of Hayne J at [399]-[403], [508]-[510].

[303]

cf Ruhani v Director of Police (2005) 222 CLR 489 at 557-558 [222]-[225].

[304]

See Kenny (1990) 1 Public Law Review 134 at 162-165; Zines at 225-229.

[305]

Since Marbury v Madison 5 US 137 at 177 (1803) per Marshall CJ.

[306]

See Kenny (1990) 1 Public Law Review 134 at 163. See also at 137-149 for an analysis of the approach taken in the United States Supreme Court.

[307]

cf reasons of Heydon J at [620], [629]-[639].

[308]

cf Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 327-328 [61] per Gummow J.

[309]

cf Dennis v United States 341 US 494 at 587-588 (1951) per Douglas J (diss).

[310]

In this respect, see Windeyer Opinion, Hope Review at 291-292 [31]-[32] and also Hope Review at 310-313. It is significant that the causes of politically motivated violence and vandalism in Australia identified for the period 1963-1977 included "anti war/conscription", "anti apartheid", "anti uranium/environment" and "aboriginal rights", all legitimate subjects of lawful protest and demonstration. I agree with the difficulty, noted by Hayne J, arising in distinguishing acts of violence that are performed to advance particular motivations: see reasons of Hayne J at [442].

[311]

The Code, s 100.1. See also Rose and Nestorovska (2007) 31 Criminal Law Journal 20 at 25-27.

[312]

The Commonwealth v TasmaniaThe Tasmanian Dam Case (1983) 158 CLR 1 ; Richardson (1988) 164 CLR 261 ; Victoria v The CommonwealthIndustrial Relations Act Case (1996) 187 CLR 416 .

[313]

The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 . It entered into force generally on 24 October 1945 and for Australia on 1 November 1945 : [1945] ATS 1 . See also Charter of the United Nations Act 1945 (Cth), s 5.

[314]

Charter, Art 24(1).

[315]

See also Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, [1971] ICJ 16 at 53-54 [116 ]; Prosecutor v Tadic (Jurisdiction) (1995) 105 ILR 419 at 467 [31].

[316]

Charter, Art 24(1) ; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, [1984] ICJ 392 at 431-432 [89], 434-435 [95].

[317]

See particularly the Charter, Arts 39-43 ; Tadic (1995) 105 ILR 419 at 465-468 [28]-[32].

[318]

Article 103 states: "In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail." See also Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art 30(1), which entered into force for Australia and generally on 27 January 1980 : [1974] ATS 2 Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992 , [1992] ICJ 3 at 126 [42]; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, [1998] ICJ 115 at 140 ; Nicaragua [1984] ICJ 392 at 440 [107].

[319]

In McCulloch v Maryland 17 US 316 at 415 (1819), Marshall CJ discussed the meaning of "necessary" in a constitutional context, indicating that one such synonym was "conducive". See generally at 413-416.

[320]

The paragraph continues "including by provision of early warning to other States by exchange of information". As submitted by the plaintiff, only six of the thirteen treaties identified by the Commonwealth as relating to terrorism make any reference to an obligation to "prevent" terrorism. None of these treaties extend the suggested obligation any further than Resolution 1373.

[321]

Saul at 48 (citations omitted).

[322]

See also Young (2006) 29 Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 23 at 43-44.

[323]

See Resolution 1566, para 3; Saul at 247; Young (2006) 29 Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 23 at 45-46.

[324]

See Saul at 247-248.

[325]

Resolution 1373, para 6. See also Saul at 236-238.

[326]

Resolution 1373, para 6.

[327]

Saul at 264 (citation omitted, original emphasis).

[328]

Saul at 267-268.

[329]

See Saul at 268 fn 626 .

[330]

Saul at 264.

[331]

Charter, Art 24(2).

[332]

Charter, Art 1(1).

[333]

Charter, Art 1(3).

[334]

See above at [272].

[335]

Bradley v The Commonwealth (1973) 128 CLR 557 at 582-583; Charter of the United Nations Act 1945 (Cth), s 5.

[336]

McCulloch 17 US 316 at 407 (1819) per Marshall CJ (original emphasis).

[337]

Industrial Relations Act Case (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 486.

[338]

See eg Industrial Relations Act Case (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 486.

[339]

See The Tasmanian Dam Case (1983) 158 CLR 1 at 261, citing Wynes , Legislative, Executive and Judicial Powers in Australia, 5th ed (1976) at 299. See also Zines at 288-289.

[340]

Zines at 291. See also Industrial Relations Act Case (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 486.

[341]

Industrial Relations Act Case (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 486-487; Zines at 291.

[342]

Zines at 291, cited in Industrial Relations Act Case (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 486.

[343]

Zines at 291.

[344]

See Zines at 292.

[345]

(1936) 55 CLR 608 at 674-675. See also Australian Law Reform Commission , Review of Sedition Laws, Discussion Paper No 71, (2006) at 84-85 [5.8]-[5.11].

[346]

Note the reports of the Permanent Australian Mission to the United Nations, annexed to: S/2001/1247; S/2002/776; S/2003/513; S/2003/1204; S/2005/90; S/2005/671. The last of these reports was submitted in October 2005, before the enactment of Div 104.

[347]

cf Richardson (1988) 164 CLR 261 at 326 ; Industrial Relations Act Case (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 487.

[348]

Resolution 1373, paras 1(b), 2(e).

[349]

See General Assembly Resolution A/Res/60/43 ( 6 January 2006 ), para 10: " Urges all States that have not yet done so to consider, as a matter of priority, and in accordance with Security Council resolutions 1373 (2001), and 1566 (2004) of 8 October 2004 , becoming parties to the relevant conventions and protocols ... and calls upon all States to enact, as appropriate, the domestic legislation necessary to implement the provisions of those conventions and protocols, to ensure that the jurisdiction of their courts enables them to bring to trial the perpetrators of terrorist acts, and to cooperate with and provide support and assistance to other States and relevant international and regional organizations to that end".

[350]

[2006] 3 WLR 954 (CA). See at 974-982 [55]-[87].

[351]

See [2006] 3 WLR 954 at 980-981 [80], 982 [86]-[87].

[352]

See further below at [379]-[382].

[353]

cf XYZ v Commonwealth (2006) 80 ALJR 1036 at 1062 [117], 1076-1082 [180]-[206]; 227 ALR 495 at 527, 546-554.

[354]

See, for example , M v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] 2 All ER 863 ; A v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] 2 AC 68 ; Secretary of State for the Home Department v JJ [2006] EWHC 1623 (Admin); [2006] 3 WLR 866 (CA) ; Khawaja ( 2006) 42 CR (6th) 348 at 387 [87 ]; Charkaoui 2007 SCC 9 ; Rasul v BushHamdan v Rumsfeld 165 L Ed 2d 723 (2006) ; Mohamed v President of the Republic of South Africa 2001 (3) SA 893.

[355]

cf XYZ v Commonwealth (2006) 80 ALJR 1036 ; 227 ALR 495 .

[356]

Douglas, "Cold War Justice? Judicial Responses to Communists and Communism, 1945-1955", (2007) 29 Sydney Law Review 43 at 55-57.

[357]

(1956) 94 CLR 254 at 296 per Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ.

[358]

The following passage from the United States Supreme Court decision in Muskrat v United States 219 US 346 at 355 (1911) was cited with approval: "The power conferred on this court is exclusively judicial, and it cannot be required or authorized to exercise any other." See at 292 where the joint reasons stated that "the judicature of the Commonwealth should stand in the same position".

[359]

See Wheeler, "The Boilermakers Case", in Lee and Winterton 160 at 160-161, 163, 166-169.

[360]

Boilermakers (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 295.

[361]

Boilermakers (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 295.

[362]

Constitution, ss 1, 61, 71. See Boilermakers (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 275-276.

[363]

Attorney-General of the Commonwealth of Australia v R (1957) 95 CLR 529 at 540-541 ; [1957] AC 288 at 315.

[364]

See the separate dissenting reasons of Williams, Webb and Taylor JJ in Boilermakers (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 301-302 306 314-315 317 325-327 329 333 and 337 -343. See also R v Joske; Ex parte Australian Building Construction Employees & Builders' Labourers' Federation (1974) 130 CLR 87 at 90 per Barwick CJ ; Attorney-General (Cth) v Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83 at 113 [52].

[365]

Albarran v Members of the Companies Auditors and Liquidators Disciplinary Board (2007) 81 ALJR 1155 at 1166-1167 [59]-[63]; 234 ALR 618 at 631-632.

[366]

See Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83 at 113-114 [53], 124-126 [78]-[81]. See also reasons of Hayne J at [464].

[367]

But see below at [339]-[344]; cf reasons of Hayne J at [472].

[368]

See Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83 at 124-125 [78].

[369]

(1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357.

[370]

[2007] HCA 29 at [118].

[371]

In re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257 at 267.

[372]

Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 442- 443 and 464 ; cf R v Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration; Ex parte Barrett (1945) 70 CLR 141 .

[373]

Shell Co of Australia Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1930) 44 CLR 530 at 543 ; [1931] AC 275 at 296 ; Rola Co (Australia) Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth (1944) 69 CLR 185 at 198-199.

[374]

Reasons of Hayne J at [465]-[466], citing R v Trade Practices Tribunal; Ex parte Tasmanian Breweries Pty Ltd (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374 per Kitto J.

[375]

Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 396.

[376]

(1995) 183 CLR 245 at 267-268. See also Precision Data Holdings Ltd v Wills (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 188-189.

[377]

See R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 368.

[378]

Albarran (2007) 81 ALJR 1155 at 1173-1174 [98]-[99]; 234 ALR 618 at 641.

[379]

Above, these reasons at [171]-[175]; reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [62].

[380]

The Code, s 104.14(7); reasons of Hayne J at [479], [480].

[381]

The Code, s 104.4(1)(c)(i).

[382]

The Code, s 104.4(1)(c)(ii).

[383]

cf reasons of Gleeson CJ at [28].

[384]

See generally Rose and Nestorovska (2007) 31 Criminal Law Journal 20 at 32-40, 44.

[385]

See reasons of Hayne J at [485]-[486].

[386]

See above at [178].

[387]

Reasons of Hayne J at [484].

[388]

Note also the use of "necessarily" and its interpretation in income tax legislation. See reasons of Hayne J at [490] and the reasons of Gleeson CJ in Mulholland v Australian Electoral Commission (2004) 220 CLR 181 at 199-200 [39]. See also reasons of Gleeson CJ at [20]-[27].

[389]

cf reasons of Gleeson CJ at [20]-[27].

[390]

cf Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1 at 90-91 [234]-[236 ]; Mulholland (2004) 220 CLR 181 at 266 [247].

[391]

cf Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 592-593.

[392]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 272. See also reasons of Hayne J at [504]-[505].

[393]

Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83 at 126 [83].

[394]

Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83 at 126 [83].

[395]

(1970) 123 CLR 361 .

[396]

(1970) 123 CLR 361 at 400, see also at 377 ; Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83 at 126 [83 ]; Cattanach v Melchior (2003) 215 CLR 1 at 34-35 [75].

[397]

Green, "Separation of Governmental Powers", (1920) 29 Yale Law Journal 369 ("Green") at 378 (citations omitted, original emphasis), referred to in Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 402.

[398]

See R v Spicer; Ex parte Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia (1957) 100 CLR 312 at 317; cf reasons of Hayne J at [502].

[399]

See Green (1920) 29 Yale Law Journal 369 at 382 (emphasis added).

[400]

See Wilkinson v Osborne (1915) 21 CLR 89 at 97 ; A v Hayden (1984) 156 CLR 532 at 571 ; Bateman's Bay Local Aboriginal Land Council v Aboriginal Community Benefit Fund Pty Ltd (1998) 194 CLR 247 at 257 [25 ]; Truth About Motorways Pty Ltd v Macquarie Infrastructure Investment Management Ltd (2000) 200 CLR 591 at 602 [17 ]; Cattanach v Melchior (2003) 215 CLR 1 at 33-35 [73]-[75], 85 [232]-[233 ]; D'Orta-Ekenaike v Victoria Legal Aid (2005) 223 CLR 1 at 16 [31]-[32].

[401]

See reasons of Hayne J at [516], citing the reasons of Gaudron J in Australian Broadcasting Corporation v Lenah Game Meats Pty Ltd (2001) 208 CLR 199 at 231 [59].

[402]

(1991) 173 CLR 167 .

[403]

(1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Dawson, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ. See also Re Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd; ; Ex parte Federated Miscellaneous Workers' Union of Australia (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 666.

[404]

See Huddart Parker (1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357 ; Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 396-397. See also United Engineering Workers' Union v Devanayagam [1968] AC 356 at 384-385 ; Prentis v Atlantic Coast Line 211 US 210 at 226 (1908).

[405]

See Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374 per Kitto J; reasons of Hayne J at [465].

[406]

Zines at 197, citing Cominos v Cominos (1972) 127 CLR 588 at 600 per Gibbs J ; Joske (1976) 135 CLR 194 at 216 per Mason and Murphy JJ ; Boilermakers (1956) 94 CLR 254 ; Waterside Workers' Federation (1918) 25 CLR 434 .

[407]

(1991) 173 CLR 167 at 191 (emphasis added). See also Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 377 ; Re Dingjan; ; Ex parte Wagner (1995) 183 CLR 323 at 360.

[408]

(1945) 70 CLR 141 at 165 and following.

[409]

See Peacock (1943) 67 CLR 25 at 35 and 54 .

[410]

cf [2006] HCATrans 660 at 2983-2997.

[411]

Constitution, s 76(ii).

[412]

See Constitution, s 77(i); cf reasons of Hayne J at [473]-[474].

[413]

See Barrett (1945) 70 CLR 141 at 164-169 and esp at 167-169. Note also Jacka v Lewis (1944) 68 CLR 455 .

[414]

(1945) 70 CLR 141 .

[415]

Barrett (1945) 70 CLR 141 at 168. See also at 166.

[416]

Dingjan (1995) 183 CLR 323 at 360, quoting Precision Data (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 191, which referred to the discussion by Dixon J in Barrett (1945) 70 CLR 141 at 165 and following. See also reasons of Hayne J at [473]-[474].

[417]

Dingjan (1995) 183 CLR 323 at 360, referring to Precision Data (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 191. See also Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 369-370 ; Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 150.

[418]

See below at [330]-[338]. It is noted that the proceedings under s 58E of the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904 (Cth) with which Barrett was concerned were inter partes.

[419]

cf reasons of Hayne J at [503]-[512].

[420]

See, for example, Family Law Act 1975 (Cth), s 114 (which empowers federal courts to make orders or grant injunctions having regard to circumstances arising out of the marital relationship in proceedings between parties to a marriage: such orders or injunctions may be issued for the personal protection of a party to the marriage and may restrain a party to the marriage from entering or remaining in particular places or specified areas), s 90AE (which allows a court to make a variety of orders affecting the rights, liabilities and obligations of third parties in relation to the disposition of property of a party to the marriage); Corporations Act 2001 (Cth), s 1323 (which allows federal courts to make orders to protect the interests of a person where an investigation is being carried out into alleged contraventions of that Act).

[421]

See, for example, Bail Act 1978 (NSW), s 6; Bail Act 1977 (Vic), s 4; Dangerous Prisoners (Sexual Offenders) Act 2003 (Q), s 3; Restraining Orders Act 1997 (WA), ss 11A, 34, 35. See also McDonald, "Involuntary Detention and the Separation of Judicial Power", (2007) 35 Federal Law Review 25 ("McDonald") at 70-71.

[422]

See, for example, Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth), s 80, which empowers federal courts to make orders to restrain a breach of that Act.

[423]

See, for example, Family Law Act 1975 (Cth), ss 68B, 114, which allow federal courts to make orders in relation to the welfare of children, as well as orders protecting a party to a marriage. Such orders may restrain a person from entering or remaining in specified areas or places. See also Rose and Nestorovska (2007) 31 Criminal Law Journal 20 at 44.

[424]

See Family Law Act 1975 (Cth), ss 68B, 114; Bail Act 1978 (NSW), s 6; Magistrates' Court Act 1989 (Vic), s 126A; Dangerous Prisoners (Sexual Offenders) Act 2003 (Q), ss 3, 13; Restraining Orders Act 1997 (WA), s 34.

[425]

[1964] 2 QB 573 at 577.

[426]

R v Wright; Ex parte Klar (1971) 1 SASR 103 at 112 per Bray CJ. See also McDonald (2007) 35 Federal Law Review 25 at 73.

[427]

See Edwards v Raabe ( 2000) 117 A Crim R 191 at 197 [23].

[428]

See Wright (1971) 1 SASR 103 at 112. See also R v Ayu [1958] 1 WLR 1264 at 1265 ; [1958] 3 All ER 636 at 637-638 ; Hashman and Harrup v United Kingdom (1999) 30 EHRR 241 at 247 [17].

[429]

[1907] 2 KB 380 at 383-384, cited with approval in Sheldon [1964] 2 QB 573 at 578.

[430]

See Williams, "Preventive Justice and the Rule of Law", (1953) 16 Modern Law Review 417 at 420-421 (citations omitted).

[431]

United Kingdom, Home Office , Bind Overs: A Power for the 21st Century, Consultation Document, (2003) ("Home Office Paper").

[432]

Home Office Paper at 2 [2.5], 6 [7.6.7], 9 [9.8].

[433]

Home Office Paper at 5-6 [7.5.1]-[7.5.5].

[434]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 at 655-656 [219]. The constitutional separation of the judicial power within the States observes different legal rules. See Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51 at 67 78 92-94 103-104 109- 111 and 132 .

[435]

Namely, s 38(3), which provides: "If there is no particular person seeking to be protected an application for a misconduct restraining order may be made by a police officer on behalf of the public generally."

[436]

See Restraining Orders Act 1997 (WA), ss 34, 35. See also McDonald (2007) 35 Federal Law Review 25 at 70-73.

[437]

See, for example, Bail Act 1978 (NSW), s 32; Bail Act 1977 (Vic), s 4(2)(d), (3).

[438]

See, for example, Bail Act 1978 (NSW), s 32(1)(c)(i); Bail Act 1977 (Vic), s 4(2)(d), (3)(a).

[439]

See, for example, Bail Act 1978 (NSW), s 32(1)(c)(iv), (2); Bail Act 1977 (Vic), s 4(2)(d), (3).

[440]

(2004) 223 CLR 575 at 640 [171] (citation omitted, original emphasis); cf reasons of Gleeson CJ at [16]-[18].

[441]

See Albarran (2007) 81 ALJR 1155 ; 234 ALR 618 ; Visnic v Australian Securities and Investments Commission (2007) 81 ALJR 1175 ; 234 ALR 413 .

[442]

(1995) 183 CLR 323 at 360.

[443]

Waterside Workers' Federation (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 467 ; Boilermakers (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 270 296 314 and 338 .

[444]

Precision Data (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189. See also Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 370 ; R v Hegarty; Ex parte City of Salisbury (1981) 147 CLR 617 at 628 ; Re Ranger Uranium Mines (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 665-666 ; Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 93 and 147 -148.

[445]

Relying on R v Quinn; Ex parte Consolidated Foods Corporation (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 6 and 9 -10 ; Hegarty (1981) 147 CLR 617 at 628 and 631 -632. See also Re Ranger Uranium Mines (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 665 ; Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 122 and 147 -148 ; Precision Data (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189 ; Brandy (1995) 183 CLR 245 at 261-262.

[446]

[2007] HCATrans 076 at 11295.

[447]

See Joske (1974) 130 CLR 87 at 95 ; Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 6 and 9 -12 ; Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83 at 126-127 [83]-[84].

[448]

See reasons of Hayne J at [462].

[449]

(2002) 209 CLR 246 at 268-269 [62]. See also Visnic (2007) 81 ALJR 1155 at 1164 [45]; 234 ALR 413 at 423, citing Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 607 per Deane J.

[450]

Spicer (1957) 100 CLR 277 at 305.

[451]

See Sue v Hill (1999) 199 CLR 462 at 516-517 [134]-[135], 518 [140] per Gaudron J (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ agreeing at 484 [39]) ; Pasini (2002) 209 CLR 246 at 269 [63]. See also Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 368-369.

[452]

Albarran (2007) 81 ALJR 1155 at 1168 [70]; 234 ALR 618 at 634 ; Visnic (2007) 81 ALJR 1175 at 1183-1184 [45]; 234 ALR 413 at 423.

[453]

(1957) 100 CLR 277 at 305. See also Hegarty (1981) 147 CLR 617 at 628.

[454]

See also reasons of Hayne J at [514].

[495]

The definition of "peace officer" is contained in s 2.

[496]

See Criminal Code (Can), s 83.3(2).

[497]

Criminal Code (Can), s 83.3(8); reasons of Hayne J at [514].

[498]

Criminal Code (Can), s 83.3(4)-(8).

[499]

See Criminal Code (Can), s 83.3(8).

[500]

The Canadian recognizance laws ceased to apply from 1 March 2007 . They had been subject to a sunset clause. A motion to extend the laws for a further three years was defeated in the Canadian Parliament on 27 February 2007 : see Criminal Code (Can), s 83.32.

[501]

The PTA followed the decision of the House of Lords in A v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] 2 AC 68 concerning the preventative detention provisions in the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 (UK) and the Human Rights Act 1998 (Designated Derogation) Order 2001. The House of Lords held that s 23 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act was incompatible with the non-discrimination guarantee of the European Convention on Human Rights ("ECHR") as no objective justification existed for confining the preventative detention regime in that Act to foreign terrorist suspects.

[502]

PTA, s 2(1). "[T]errorism-related activity" is defined in s 1(9) of the PTA. "[T]errorism" is defined in s 1 of the Terrorism Act 2000 (UK) in similar terms to the definition of "terrorist act" in the Code.

[503]

PTA, s 4(1). These control orders impose "derogating obligations" inconsistent with the right to liberty under Art 5 of the ECHR, but are permissible in the United Kingdom because made under a "designated derogation" within the meaning of the Human Rights Act 1998 (UK), s 14. See PTA, s 4(3).

[504]

PTA, s 3(1)(b), (4).

[505]

PTA, s 3(1)(a).

[506]

PTA, s 3(2)(a), (3)(b). See also s 3(10).

[507]

PTA, s 3(11).

[508]

PTA, s 1(3). See the examples given in the PTA, s 1(4)-(7).

[509]

PTA, s 8(2).

[510]

See Secretary of State for the Home Department v MB [2006] EWHC 1000 (Admin) at [103]-[104] per Sullivan J ; Secretary of State for the Home Department v JJ [2006] EWHC 1623 (Admin) at [73]; [2006] 3 WLR 866 at 874 [23], 875 [27] per Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers CJ; cf Secretary of State for the Home Department v MB [2006] 3 WLR 839 at 852-853 [31], 865 [85]-[86]. Leave to appeal to the House of Lords was granted in both of these cases: [2007] 1 WLR 397 . The appeals were heard together with an appeal from the decision in Secretary of State for the Home Department v AF [2007] EWHC 651 (Admin) (leave given on 17 May 2007 ) and the decisions are pending. See also Hardiman-McCartney, "Controlling Control Orders: Article 5 ECHR and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005", (2007) 66 Cambridge Law Journal 6.

[511]

See eg M v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] 2 All ER 863 at 868 [13], 873 [34].

[512]

165 L Ed 2d 723 (2006).

[513]

Hamdan v Rumsfeld 165 L Ed 2d 723 at 779 (2006) per Stevens J (joined by Souter, Ginsburg and Breyer JJ), citing Taft, "The Law of Armed Conflict After 9/11: Some Salient Features", (2003) 28 Yale Journal of International Law 319 at 322.

[514]

See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ("the ICCPR"), Arts 9, 14(1). The ICCPR entered into force generally on 23 March 1976 in accordance with Art 49 and entered into force in Australia on 13 November 1980 : [1980] ATS 23 . Compare ECHR, Arts 5, 6; American Convention on Human Rights, Arts 7, 8; African (Banjul) Charter on Human and People's Rights, Arts 6, 7; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Art 10 ; Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs v Al Masri (2003) 126 FCR 54 at 89-92 [140]-[152].

[515]

ICCPR, Art 17.

[516]

ICCPR, Arts 19, 22.

[517]

ICCPR, Art 12.

[518]

ICCPR, Art 14.

[519]

See Jumbunna (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 363 ; Zachariassen (1917) 24 CLR 166 at 181 ; Polites (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 69 74 75 77- 78 and 79 . See also Al-Kateb (2004) 219 CLR 562 at 617-630 [152]-[193]; above at [208].

[520]

Potter (1908) 7 CLR 277 at 304 ; Coco (1994) 179 CLR 427 at 437 and 446 ; Daniels Corporation (2002) 213 CLR 543 at 553 [11 ]; Plaintiff S 157/2002 (2003) 211 CLR 476 at 492 [30 ]; Al-Kateb (2004) 219 CLR 562 at 577 [19]-[20], 643 [241].

[521]

(2004) 219 CLR 562 at 577 [20].

[522]

See the Code, s 104.5(3).

[523]

ICCPR, Art 14(1). See Ebner v Official Trustee in Bankruptcy (2000) 205 CLR 337 at 363-364 [83]-[84], 373 [116].

[524]

See Mohamed v President of the Republic of South Africa 2001 (3) SA 893 at 921 [68 ]; Rasul v BushHamdan v Rumsfeld 165 L Ed 2d 723 (2006) ; Beit Sourik Village Council v Government of Israel 43 ILM 1009 at 1128 [86] (2004) per Barak P (Mazza VP and Cheshin J concurring); cf Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 141 ; Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 345-346 [115]-[117].

[525]

See Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd v The Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 513 at 657-658 ; Austin v Commonwealth (2003) 215 CLR 185 at 291-293 [252]-[257 ]; Al-Kateb (2004) 219 CLR 562 at 617-630 [152]-[193].

[526]

Especially by way of contrast with Dennis v United States 341 US 494 (1951). See at 587-588 per Douglas J (diss).

[527]

Reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [61].

[528]

See [2007] HCATrans 076 at 8484-8487 10080- 10088 and 10799 -10884; reasons of Gummow and Crennan JJ at [139]-[140].

[529]

Reasons of Callinan J at [530]-[533], [582]-[585], [589].

[530]

Including the Bank Nationalisation Case (1948) 76 CLR 1 at 185.

[531]

The first defendant, the Federal Magistrate, filed a submitting appearance and has taken no active part in the litigation.

[532]

r 27.08.1.

[533]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 196.

[534]

"The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Commonwealth with respect to:

...
(vi): The naval and military defence of the Commonwealth and of the several States, and the control of the forces to execute and maintain the laws of the Commonwealth".

[535]

Power with respect to "[m]atters referred to the Parliament of the Commonwealth by the Parliament or Parliaments of any State or States, but so that the law shall extend only to States by whose Parliaments the matter is referred, or which afterwards adopt the law".

[536]

Power with respect to "[e]xternal affairs".

[537]

Precision Data Holdings Ltd v Wills (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 191.

[538]

s 104.4(1)(d).

[539]

Further Amended Special Case, para 6.

[540]

Further Amended Special Case, para 11(a).

[541]

Further Amended Special Case, paras 25, 26.

[542]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 .

[543]

(1952) 87 CLR 177 .

[544]

Carl von Clausewitz , On War, ( 1832) (J J Graham translation as revised and edited by F N Maude, 1908; Rapoport (ed) 1968) at 119.

[545]

The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed (1989), Vol 17 at 820.

[546]

2nd ed (1989), Vol 17 at 821.

[547]

2nd ed (1989), Vol 17 at 821, "terrorism".

[548]

2nd ed (1989), Vol 17 at 821, "terrorist".

[549]

The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed (1989), Vol 8 at 8.

[550]

(1965) 114 CLR 1 at 7.

[551]

Stenhouse v Coleman (1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471 per Dixon J.

[552]

(1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471.

[553]

(1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471.

[554]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 9-10.

[555]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 191.

[556]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 198 (emphasis added).

[557]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 201.

[558]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 201.

[559]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 202.

[560]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 202.

[561]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 194-195.

[562]

(1915) 20 CLR 299 ; [1915] VLR 476 .

[563]

[1942] ALR 359 .

[564]

(1947) 75 CLR 94 at 102-104.

[565]

(1949) 79 CLR 43 at 83 and 84 .

[566]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 196.

[567]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 197.

[568]

(1916) 21 CLR 433 at 440.

[569]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 202 (emphasis added).

[570]

Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 195.

[571]

s 104.4(1)(d).

[572]

(1944) 69 CLR 457 at 471.

[573]

Terrorism (Commonwealth Powers) Act 2003 (Vic), s 3 definition of "express amendment".

[574]

(1956) 94 CLR 254 .

[575]

(1956) 94 CLR 254 at 273.

[576]

R v Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration; Ex parte Barrett (1945) 70 CLR 141 at 165 per Dixon J.

[577]

Barrett (1945) 70 CLR 141 at 167 per Dixon J.

[578]

R v Quinn; Ex parte Consolidated Food Corporation (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 18 per Aickin J.

[579]

(1957) 100 CLR 277 at 304-305.

[580]

R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 381 per Kitto J.

[581]

(1954) 90 CLR 353 at 381.

[582]

(1954) 90 CLR 353 at 381-382.

[583]

Compare, for example , Huddart, Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead (1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357 per Griffith CJ ; Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 442 per Griffith CJ ; R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 281-282 per Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ ; Brandy v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1995) 183 CLR 245 at 267 per Deane, Dawson, Gaudron and McHugh JJ.

[584]

R v Trade Practices Tribunal; Ex parte Tasmanian Breweries Pty Ltd (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374 per Kitto J.

[585]

(1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357.

[586]

Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374 per Kitto J.

[587]

(1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374.

[588]

(1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374-375.

[589]

Campbell, "The Choice between Judicial and Administrative Tribunals and the Separation of Powers", (1981) 12 Federal Law Review 24 at 30-31.

[590]

(1953) 87 CLR 144 .

[591]

(1953) 87 CLR 144 at 150.

[592]

(1957) 100 CLR 312 .

[593]

(1957) 100 CLR 312 at 317 per Dixon CJ, Williams, Kitto and Taylor JJ.

[594]

(1945) 70 CLR 141 at 166-169.

[595]

(1955) 91 CLR 529 .

[596]

(1976) 135 CLR 194 .

[597]

Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904 (Cth), s 171C(2), as inserted in the principal Act by the Conciliation and Arbitration (Organizations) Act 1974 (Cth).

[598]

(1976) 135 CLR 194 at 215-216.

[599]

(1972) 127 CLR 588 .

[600]

R v Quinn; Ex parte Consolidated Food Corporation (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 18 per Aickin J.

[601]

[2007] HCATrans 076 at 11295.

[602]

(1976) 135 CLR 194 at 216.

[603]

(1957) 100 CLR 312 at 317.

[604]

For example , Cominos v Cominos (1972) 127 CLR 588 at 608.

[605]

R v Spicer; Ex parte Australian Builders' Labourers' Federation (1957) 100 CLR 277 at 291 per Dixon CJ.

[606]

In re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257 at 265.

[607]

Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374 per Kitto J.

[608]

Wyong Shire Council v Shirt (1980) 146 CLR 40 .

[609]

Cominos v Cominos (1972) 127 CLR 588 .

[610]

Insurance Commissioner v Associated Dominions Assurance Society Pty Ltd (1953) 89 CLR 78 at 90 per Fullagar J.

[611]

Peacock v Newtown Marrickville and General Co-operative Building Society No4 Ltd (1943) 67 CLR 25 at 54-56 per Williams J.

[612]

R v Commonwealth Industrial Court; Ex parte The Amalgamated Engineering Union, Australian Section (1960) 103 CLR 368 at 383 per Kitto J.

[613]

Fardon v Attorney-General (Qld) (2004) 223 CLR 575 .

[614]

R v Commonwealth Industrial Court; Ex parte The Amalgamated Engineering Union, Australian Section (1960) 103 CLR 368 at 383 per Kitto J.

[615]

Fardon v Attorney-General (Qld) (2004) 223 CLR 575 at 597 [34] per McHugh J.

[616]

s 104.14(7)(a).

[617]

s 104.4(1)(c).

[618]

s 104.4(1)(d).

[619]

cf In re Naylor Benzon Mining Co Ltd [1950] Ch 567 at 575.

[620]

Ronpibon Tin NL and Tongkah Compound NL v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1949) 78 CLR 47 at 56.

[621]

(2004) 220 CLR 181 at 199-200 [39].

[622]

17 US 159 (1819). See The Commonwealth and the Postmaster-General v The Progress Advertising and Press Agency Co Pty Ltd (1910) 10 CLR 457 at 469.

[623]

Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 381 and 382 per Kitto J, citing Chambers's Encyclopaedia, new ed (1950), Vol 11 at 153-155.

[624]

R v Joske; Ex parte Shop Distributive and Allied Employees' Assn (1976) 135 CLR 194 at 216.

[625]

R v Spicer; Ex parte Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia (1957) 100 CLR 312 at 317.

[626]

(1971) 127 CLR 106 at 134-135 per Windeyer J. See also Leach v R (2007) 81 ALJR 598 ; 232 ALR 325 .

[627]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 272.

[628]

cf Ewing and Gearty, The Struggle for Civil Liberties: Political Freedom and the Rule of Law in Britain 1914-1945, (2000) at 87.

[629]

Wishart v Fraser (1941) 64 CLR 470 at 484.

[630]

(1915) 20 CLR 299 .

[631]

[1942] ALR 359 .

[632]

(1947) 75 CLR 94 .

[633]

(1941) 64 CLR 470 .

[634]

Wishart v Fraser (1941) 64 CLR 470 at 484-485.

[635]

Marbury v Madison 5 US 87 at 111 (1803).

[636]

[2005] 2 AC 68 .

[637]

[2005] 2 AC 68 at 137 [118] per Lord Hope of Craighead.

[638]

[2005] 2 AC 68 at 137 [116] per Lord Hope of Craighead.

[639]

cf Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51 at 133.

[640]

Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51 at 134.

[641]

RSC 1985, c C-46. The application of the relevant provisions has not been extended beyond a sunset date in 2007 fixed by the legislation.

[642]

Criminal Code (Can), s 83.3(1) and (2) (emphasis added).

[643]

Criminal Code (Can), s 83.3(8).

[644]

(2001) 208 CLR 199 .

[645]

(2001) 208 CLR 199 at 231 [59].

[646]

eg Bail Act 1977 (Vic), s 8; Supreme Court Act 1986 (Vic), s 37(1); see also Evidence Act 1995 (Cth), s 75.

[647]

Section 75(v) of the Constitution provides:

"In all matters:

...

(v)
in which a writ of Mandamus or prohibition or an injunction is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth;

the High Court shall have original jurisdiction."

[648]

Paragraph 2 of the Special Case is as follows:

"In this Special Case, unless otherwise expressly stated it is agreed by the parties that:

(a)
any statements stated in paras 3 to 47 to have been made were made or were likely to have been made as stated or alleged but there is no agreement between the parties as to the truth of the matters stated; and

(b)
any documents referred to in paras 3 to 47 were or were likely to have been published as stated or alleged but there is no agreement between the parties as to the truth of the matters contained in the documents."

[649]

See the discussion by Latham CJ in the Communist Party Case of the possibility of different judicial perspectives on the Australian Communist Party and its connexion with branches of the Party elsewhere : Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 147-148.

[650]

Section 15AB:

"Use of extrinsic material in the interpretation of an Act

(1)
Subject to subs (3), in the interpretation of a provision of an Act, if any material not forming part of the Act is capable of assisting in the ascertainment of the meaning of the provision, consideration may be given to that material:

(a)
to confirm that the meaning of the provision is the ordinary meaning conveyed by the text of the provision taking into account its context in the Act and the purpose or object underlying the Act; or

(b)
to determine the meaning of the provision when:

(i)
the provision is ambiguous or obscure; or

(ii)
the ordinary meaning conveyed by the text of the provision taking into account its context in the Act and the purpose or object underlying the Act leads to a result that is manifestly absurd or is unreasonable.

(2)
Without limiting the generality of subs (1), the material that may be considered in accordance with that subsection in the interpretation of a provision of an Act includes:

...

(e)
any explanatory memorandum relating to the Bill containing the provision, or any other relevant document, that was laid before, or furnished to the members of, either House of the Parliament by a Minister before the time when the provision was enacted;

(f)
the speech made to a House of the Parliament by a Minister on the occasion of the moving by that Minister of a motion that the Bill containing the provision be read a second time in that House;

...

(3)
In determining whether consideration should be given to any material in accordance with subsection (1), or in considering the weight to be given to any such material, regard shall be had, in addition to any other relevant matters, to:

(a)
the desirability of persons being able to rely on the ordinary meaning conveyed by the text of the provision taking into account its context in the Act and the purpose or object underlying the Act; and

(b)
the need to avoid prolonging legal or other proceedings without compensating advantage."

[651]

See Evidence Act 1995 (Cth), s 159, which provides:

"A document that purports:

(a)
to be published by the Australian Statistician; and

(b)
to contain statistics or abstracts compiled and analysed by the Australian Statistician under the Census and Statistics Act 1905;

is evidence that those statistics or abstracts were compiled and analysed by the Australian Statistician under that Act."

[652]

(1978) 140 CLR 120 .

[653]

(1978) 140 CLR 120 at 189. For an example of the general information, see at 184.

[654]

(1952) 85 CLR 488 .

[655]

(1952) 85 CLR 488 at 507 per Dixon, McTiernan and Fullagar JJ.

[656]

(1980) 145 CLR 266 .

[657]

(1980) 145 CLR 266 at 293.

[658]

(1980) 145 CLR 266 at 296-298.

[659]

(2002) 208 CLR 460 .

[660]

(2002) 208 CLR 460 at 513-514 [168]-[169].

[661]

(2002) 208 CLR 460 at 478 [63], 481 [69].

[662]

(2004) 216 CLR 515 .

[663]

(1995) 182 CLR 609 .

[664]

(2004) 216 CLR 515 at 590 [217].

[665]

Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 .

[666]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 133-134.

[667]

For example, the sealing off of Berlin in 1948 necessitating the Berlin airlift and the continuing occupation of Eastern Europe.

[668]

Some examples include the horrors of the Gulags, the scale of the political murders during the reign of Stalin and the 1940 Katyn massacre of Polish military officers. The extent of Soviet penetration of western agencies, including, for example, by the "Cambridge Spy Ring" consisting of Kim Philby, Donald Duart Maclean, Guy Burgess and Anthony Blunt, did not become apparent until well after the Iron Curtain had fallen.

[669]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 26-28 (arguendo).

[670]

See South Australia v The Commonwealth ( "the Uniform Tax Case No 1 ") (1942) 65 CLR 373 at 432 per Latham CJ, 453 per McTiernan J.

[671]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 6-10.

[672]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 244-245, cf at 265-266 per Fullagar J.

[673]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 191. See also at 278 per Kitto J.

[674]

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 196-197. See also at 208 per McTiernan J.

[675]

s 102.7(1) of the Code.

[676]

R v Thomas ( 2006) 163 A Crim R 567 ; R v Thomas (No 2) [2006] VSCA 166 .

[677]

ASIO , Report to Parliament 2001-2002 at 15.

[678]

ASIO , Report to Parliament 2002-2003 at 16.

[679]

ASIO , Report to Parliament 2004-2005 at 15.

[680]

(1940) 66 CLR 344 at 363.

[681]

The proceedings here are final as to prerogative relief but the ICO remains open for confirmation or otherwise.

[682]

(1940) 66 CLR 344 at 363-364.

[683]

(1940) 66 CLR 344 at 364.

[684]

cf Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 196-197 per Dixon J.

[685]

[2006] HCATrans 661 at 4925-4950; [2007] HCATrans 078 at 16130-16134.

[686]

"Interview With Bin Ladin" , Time Magazine, 11 January 1999 .

[687]

ASIO , Report to Parliament 2002-2003 at 13.

[688]

Australia, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade , Transnational Terrorism: The Threat to Australia, ( 2004) at 71.

[689]

s 51(vi).

[690]

s 51(xxix).

[691]

s 51(xxxvii).

[692]

s 51(xxxix).

[693]

Davis v The Commonwealth (1988) 166 CLR 79 .

[694]

s 100.1(1).

[695]

Div 101.

[696]

s 102.1. See also s 102.1A, which provides for review by a Parliamentary Joint Committee of security sections of the Commonwealth Executive.

[697]

s 102.2.

[698]

ss 102.4, 102.5.

[699]

s 102.6.

[700]

s 102.7.

[701]

s 102.8.

[702]

Div 103.

[703]

Section 104.5(3) provides:

"The obligations, prohibitions and restrictions that the court may impose on the person by the order are the following:

(a)
a prohibition or restriction on the person being at specified areas or places;

(b)
a prohibition or restriction on the person leaving Australia;

(c)
a requirement that the person remain at specified premises between specified times each day, or on specified days;

(d)
a requirement that the person wear a tracking device;

(e)
a prohibition or restriction on the person communicating or associating with specified individuals;

(f)
a prohibition or restriction on the person accessing or using specified forms of telecommunication or other technology (including the Internet);

(g)
a prohibition or restriction on the person possessing or using specified articles or substances;

(h)
a prohibition or restriction on the person carrying out specified activities (including in respect of his or her work or occupation);

(i)
a requirement that the person report to specified persons at specified times and places;

(j)
a requirement that the person allow himself or herself to be photographed;

(k)
a requirement that the person allow impressions of his or her fingerprints to be taken;

(l)
a requirement that the person participate in specified counselling or education."

[704]

So too may a person the subject of an order: see ss 104.18-104.26.

[705]

Div 105.

[706]

s 104.18.

[707]

ss 104.19, 104.23.

[708]

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